Age-related macular degeneration - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

Age-related macular degeneration is a potentially progressive maculopathy characterized by drusen formation, macular pigmentary changes, geographic atrophy, and neovascularization of the choriocapillaris with exudation.
Sudden-onset of blurring or distortion of vision is often the presenting symptom in the neovascular form.
Leading cause of adult blindness in industrialized nations.
Typically affects people ages >55 years.
Diagnosis and treatment are highly specialized and involve consultation with a retinal specialist.

Early AMD (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 2)

Reproduced from Scheie Eye Institute's patient image database; used with permission

Quick Reference

History & Exam
- Key Factors
- Other Factors
More information...
Diagnostics Tests
More information...
Treatment Options
More information...

Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Images

Early AMD (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 2)
Intermediate AMD (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 3)
Late AMD with central geographic atrophy (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 4)
Late AMD with choroidal neovascularization with exudation (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 4)
Fibrovascular scar from end-stage AMD (Age-Related Eye Disease Study Group [AREDS] category 4)
High resolution optical coherence tomography image showing subretinal and intraretinal fluid
Optical coherence tomography image showing outer retinal hyperreflective lesion, subretinal and intraretinal fluid
High resolution optical coherence tomography image showing hyperreflective scar
Fluorescein angiogram showing active choroidal neovascularization
Optical coherence tomography angiography image showing hyperreflective lesion which corresponds with a network of choroidal neovascularization; this has proliferated in between the neurosensory retina and retinal pigment epithelium

Citations

Key Articles

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: age-related macular degeneration. Oct 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Age-related macular degeneration. Jan 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001 Oct;119(10):1417-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
Chew EY, Sangiovanni JP, Ferris FL, et al; Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Research Group. Lutein/zeaxanthin for the treatment of age-related cataract: AREDS2 randomized trial report No. 4. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2013 Jul;131(7):843-50.[Abstract][Full Text]

Referenced Articles

1. Arnold JJ. Age-related macular degeneration: anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment. BMJ Clin Evid. 2016 Feb 24;2016:0701.[Abstract][Full Text]
2. Ferris FL 3rd, Wilkinson CP, Bird A, et al; Beckman Initiative for Macular Research Classification Committee. Clinical classification of age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2013 Apr;120(4):844-51.[Abstract]
3. Zhou Q, Daniel E, Maguire MG, et al. Pseudodrusen and incidence of late age-related macular degeneration in fellow eyes in the comparison of age-related macular degeneration treatments trials. Ophthalmology. 2016 Jul;123(7):1530-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
4. Suzuki M, Sato T, Spaide RF. Pseudodrusen subtypes as delineated by multimodal imaging of the fundus. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014 May;157(5):1005-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
5. Deng Y, Qiao L, Du M, et al. Age-related macular degeneration: epidemiology, genetics, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and targeted therapy. Genes Dis. 2022 Jan;9(1):62-79.[Abstract][Full Text]
6. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators, Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Trends in prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment over 30 years: an analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e130-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. GBD 2019 Blindness and Vision Impairment Collaborators, Vision Loss Expert Group of the Global Burden of Disease Study. Causes of blindness and vision impairment in 2020 and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the right to sight: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Feb;9(2):e144-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. Wong WL, Su X, Li X, et al. Global prevalence of age-related macular degeneration and disease burden projection for 2020 and 2040: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 2014 Feb;2(2):e106-16. [Abstract][Full Text]
9. Chakravarthy U, Wong TY, Fletcher A, et al. Clinical risk factors for age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Ophthalmol. 2010 Dec 13;10:31.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Lim LS, Mitchell P, Seddon JM, et al. Age-related macular degeneration. Lancet. 2012 May 5;379(9827):1728-38.[Abstract]
11. Chiu CJ, Chang ML, Zhang FF, et al. The relationship of major American dietary patterns to age-related macular degeneration.Am J Ophthalmol. 2014 Jul;158(1):118-27.[Abstract]
12. Ersoy L, Ristau T, Lechanteur YT, et al. Nutritional risk factors for age-related macular degeneration. Biomed Res Int. 2014 Jul;2014:413150.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Fritsche LG, Chen W, Schu M, et al; AMD Gene Consortium. Seven new loci associated with age-related macular degeneration. Nat Genet. 2013 Apr;45(4):433-9.[Abstract]
14. Perlee LT, Bansal AT, Gehrs K, et al. Inclusion of genotype with fundus phenotype improves accuracy of predicting choroidal neovascularization and geographic atrophy. Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology. 2013 Sep;120(9):1880-92.[Abstract][Full Text]
15. Anderson DH, Radeke MJ, Gallo NB, et al. The pivotal role of the complement system in aging and age-related macular degeneration: hypothesis re-visited. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2010 Mar;29(2):95-112.[Abstract]
16. Jarrett SG, Boulton ME. Consequences of oxidative stress in age-related macular degeneration. Mol Aspects Med. 2012 Aug;33(4):399-417.[Abstract]
17. Dunaief JL. Iron induced oxidative damage as a potential factor in age-related macular degeneration: the Cogan Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006 Nov;47(11):4660-4.[Abstract]
18. Bhutto I, Lutty G. Understanding age-related macular degeneration (AMD): relationships between the photoreceptor/retinal pigment epithelium/Bruch's membrane/choriocapillaris complex. Mol Aspects Med. 2012 Aug;33(4):295-317.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Datta S, Cano M, Ebrahimi K, et al. The impact of oxidative stress and inflammation on RPE degeneration in non-neovascular AMD. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2017 Sep;60:201-18.[Abstract][Full Text]
20. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Macular degeneration - age-related: how common is it? Aug 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vision and eye health surveillance system. Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Oct 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
22. Rein DB, Wittenborn JS, Burke-Conte Z, et al. Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in the US in 2019. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022 Dec 1;140(12):1202-08.[Abstract][Full Text]
23. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: age-related macular degeneration. Oct 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
24. Chua B, Flood V, Rochtchina E, et al. Dietary fatty acids and the 5-year incidence of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006 Jul;124(7):981-6.[Abstract]
25. Chapman NA, Jacobs RJ, Braakhuis AJ. Role of diet and food intake in age-related macular degeneration: a systematic review. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2019 Jan;47(1):106-27.[Abstract]
26. Chew EY, Clemons TE, Agrón E, et al. Long-term outcomes of adding lutein/zeaxanthin and ω-3 fatty acids to the AREDS supplements on age-related macular degeneration progression: AREDS2 Report 28. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022 Jul 1;140(7):692-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Chiu CJ, Klein R, Milton RC, et al. Does eating particular diets alter the risk of age-related macular degeneration in users of the age-related eye disease study supplements? Br J Ophthalmol. 2009 Sep;93(9):1241-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Prevent Blindness America. How often should I have an eye exam? 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
29. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Vision screening recommendations for adults 40 to 60. Mar 2014 [internet publication].[Full Text]
30. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Age-related macular degeneration. Jan 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
31. Yadav S, Parry DG, Beare NAV, et al. Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy: a common type of neovascular age-related macular degeneration in Caucasians. Br J Ophthalmol. 2017 Oct;101(10):1377-80.[Abstract]
32. de Carlo TE, Romano A, Waheed NK, et al. A review of optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA). Int J Retina Vitreous. 2015 April;1:5.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Spaide RF, Fujimoto JG, Waheed NK, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2018 May;64:1-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001 Oct;119(10):1417-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. US Preventative Services Task Force. Final recommendation statement - impaired visual acuity in older adults: screening. May 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
36. Chou R, Bougatsos C, Jungbauer R, et al. Screening for impaired visual acuity in older adults: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2022 Jun 7;327(21):2129-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
37. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: retina summary benchmarks - 2023. Dec 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
38. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: comprehensive adult medical eye evaluation. November 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
39. American Optometric Association. Evidence-based Clinical Practice Guideline: comprehensive adult eye and vision examination. 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
40. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Frequency of ocular examinations - 2015. Mar 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
41. Lawrenson JG, Evans JR. Omega 3 fatty acids for preventing or slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Apr 9;2015(4):CD010015.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Chew EY, Sangiovanni JP, Ferris FL, et al; Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) Research Group. Lutein/zeaxanthin for the treatment of age-related cataract: AREDS2 randomized trial report No. 4. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2013 Jul;131(7):843-50.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 Research Group. Lutein + zeaxanthin and omega-3 fatty acids for age-related macular degeneration: the Age-Related Eye Disease Study 2 (AREDS2) randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2013 May 15;309(19):2005-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
44. Evans JR, Lawrenson JG. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for slowing the progression of age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Sep 13;9(9):CD000254.[Abstract]
45. Evans JR, Lawrenson JG. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplements for preventing age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jul 30;(7):CD000253.[Abstract][Full Text]
46. Mares-Perlman JA, Fisher AI, Klein R, et al. Lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum and their relation to age-related maculopathy in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Am J Epidemiol. 2001 Mar 1;153(5):424-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
47. Delcourt C, Cristol JP, Tessier F, et al. Age-related macular degeneration and antioxidant status in the POLA study. POLA study group. Pathologies Oculaires Liees a l'Age. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 Oct;117(10):1384-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Cho E, Stampfer MJ, Seddon JM, et al. Prospective study of zinc intake and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Ann Epidemiol. 2001 Jul;11(5):328-36.[Abstract]
49. van Leeuwen R, Boekhoorn S, Vingerling JR, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA. 2005 Dec 28;294(24):3101-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Yeong JL, Loveman E, Colquitt JL, et al. Visual cycle modulators versus placebo or observation for the prevention and treatment of geographic atrophy due to age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Dec 17;(12):CD013154.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Schmidt-Erfurth U, Chong V, Loewenstein A, et al. Guidelines for the management of neovascular age-related macular degeneration by the European Society of Retina Specialists (EURETINA). Br J Ophthalmol. 2014 Sep;98(9):1144-67.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Heier JS, Khanani AM, Quezada Ruiz C, et al. Efficacy, durability, and safety of intravitreal faricimab up to every 16 weeks for neovascular age-related macular degeneration (TENAYA and LUCERNE): two randomised, double-masked, phase 3, non-inferiority trials. Lancet. 2022 Feb 19;399(10326):729-40.[Abstract]
53. Solomon SD, Lindsley K, Vedula SS, et al. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Mar 4;(3):CD005139.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Boyer DS, Heier JS, Brown DM, et al. A Phase IIIb study to evaluate the safety of ranibizumab in subjects with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2009 Sep;116(9):1731-9. [Abstract]
55. Heier JS, Boyer D, Nguyen QD, et al. The 1-year results of CLEAR-IT 2, a phase 2 study of vascular endothelial growth factor trap-eye dosed as-needed after 12-week fixed dosing. Ophthalmology. 2011 Jun;118(6):1098-106.[Abstract]
56. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Aflibercept solution for injection for treating wet age‑related macular degeneration. July 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
57. Schmidt-Erfurth U, Kaiser PK, Korobelnik JF, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept injection for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: ninety-six-week results of the VIEW studies. Ophthalmology. 2014 Jan;121(1):193-201.[Abstract][Full Text]
58. Martin DF, Maguire MG, Fine SL, et al. Ranibizumab and bevacizumab for treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: two-year results. Ophthalmology. 2012 Jul;119(7):1388-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Chakravarthy U, Harding SP, Rogers CA, et al. Ranibizumab versus bevacizumab to treat neovascular age-related macular degeneration: one-year findings from the IVAN randomized trial. Ophthalmology. 2012 Jul;119(7):1399-411.
60. Chakravarthy U, Harding SP, Rogers CA, et al; IVAN study investigators. Alternative treatments to inhibit VEGF in age-related choroidal neovascularisation: 2-year findings of the IVAN randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2013 Oct 12;382(9900):1258-67.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA alerts health care professionals of infection risk from repackaged Avastin intravitreal injections. August 2011 [internet publication].[Full Text]
62. Moja L, Lucenteforte E, Kwag KH, et al. Systemic safety of bevacizumab versus ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Sep 15;9(9):CD011230.[Abstract][Full Text]
63. Writing Committee for the UK Age-Related Macular Degeneration EMR Users Group. The neovascular age-related macular degeneration database: multicenter study of 92 976 ranibizumab injections: report 1: visual acuity. Ophthalmology. 2014 May;121(5):1092-101.[Abstract][Full Text]
64. Gupta OP, Shienbaum G, Patel AH, et al. A treat and extend regimen using ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration clinical and economic impact. Ophthalmology. 2010 Nov;117(11):2134-40.[Abstract]
65. Berg K, Hadzalic E, Gjertsen I, et al. Ranibizumab or bevacizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration according to the lucentis compared to avastin study treat-and-extend protocol: two-year results. Ophthalmology. 2016 Jan;123(1):51-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. Arnold JJ, Campain A, Barthelmes D. Two-year outcomes of "treat and extend" intravitreal therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2015 Jun;122(6):1212-9.[Abstract]
67. Gillies MC, Campain A, Barthelmes D, et al. Long-term outcomes of treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: data from an observational study. Ophthalmology. 2015 Sep;122(9):1837-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Ohji M, Takahashi K, Okada AA, et al. Efficacy and safety of intravitreal aflibercept treat-and-extend regimens in exudative age-related macular degeneration: 52- and 96-week findings from ALTAIR: a randomized controlled trial. Adv Ther. 2020 Mar;37(3):1173-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Lyall DA, Tey A, Foot B, et al. Post-intravitreal anti-VEGF endophthalmitis in the United Kingdom: incidence, features, risk factors, and outcomes. Eye (Lond). 2012 Dec;26(12):1517-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. ClinicalTrials.gov. Study to gather information on safety and use of high dose aflibercept injection into the eye in patients with an age relatede eye disorder that causes blurred vision or a blind spot due to abnormal blood vessels that leak fluid into the light sensitive lining inside the eye (PULSAR). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04423718. Oct 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
71. Dugel PU, Koh A, Ogura Y, et al. HAWK and HARRIER: Phase 3, multicenter, randomized, double-masked trials of brolucizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2020 Jan;127(1):72-84.[Abstract][Full Text]
72. Dugel PU, Singh RP, Koh A, et al. HAWK and HARRIER: Ninety-six-week outcomes from the phase 3 trials of brolucizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2021 Jan;128(1):89-99.[Abstract][Full Text]
73. Monés J, Srivastava SK, Jaffe GJ, et al. Risk of Inflammation, Retinal Vasculitis, and Retinal Occlusion-Related Events with Brolucizumab: Post Hoc Review of HAWK and HARRIER. Ophthalmology. 2021 Jul;128(7):1050-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Novartis. Novartis reports one year results of Phase III MERLIN study evaluating Beovu® every four week dosing and provides update on Beovu clinical program. May 2021 [internet publication]. [Full Text]
75. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Brolucizumab (Beovu▼): risk of intraocular inflammation and retinal vascular occlusion increased with short dosing intervals. Jan 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
76. Wykoff CC, Abreu F, Adamis AP, et al. Efficacy, durability, and safety of intravitreal faricimab with extended dosing up to every 16 weeks in patients with diabetic macular oedema (YOSEMITE and RHINE): two randomised, double-masked, phase 3 trials. Lancet. 2022 Feb 19;399(10326):741-55.[Abstract]
77. Gragoudas ES, Adamis AP, Cunningham ET Jr., et al. Pegaptanib for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med. 2004 Dec 30;351(27):2805-16.[Abstract]
78. Avery RL, Pieramici DJ, Rabena MD, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2006 Mar;113(3):363-72.[Abstract]
79. Bashshur ZF, Bazarbachi A, Schakal A, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for the management of choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006 Mar;113(3):363-32.[Abstract]
80. Brown DM, Kaiser PK, Michels M, et al; ANCHOR Study Group. Ranibizumab versus verteporfin for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med. 2006 Oct 5;355(14):1432-44.[Abstract][Full Text]
81. Rosenfeld PJ, Brown DM, Heier JS, et al. Ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med. 2006 Oct 5;355(14):1419-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Zhao X, Meng L, Chen Y. Comparative efficacy and safety of different regimens of ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: a network meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ Open. 2021 Feb 5;11(2):e040906.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Specialist Pharmacy Service. Understanding biological and biosimilar medicines. Jun 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
84. American Academy of Ophthalmology. The use of biosimilars in ophthalmic practice - 2022. Jan 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
85. Specialist Pharmacy Service. Good governance when implementing ranibizumab biosimilar. Mar 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
86. Specialist Pharmacy Service. The licence and supporting evidence for ranibizumab biosimilar. Mar 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
87. Macular Photocoagulation Study Group. Argon laser photocoagulation for neovascular maculopathy. Five-year results from randomized clinical trials. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991 Aug;109(8):1109-14.[Abstract]
88. Macular Photocoagulation Study Group. Laser photocoagulation for juxtafoveal choroidal neovascularization. Five-year results from randomized clinical trials. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994 Apr;112(4):500-9.[Abstract]
89. Macular Photocoagulation Study Group. Laser photocoagulation of subfoveal neovascular lesions in age-related macular degeneration. Results of a randomized clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol. 1991 Sep;109(9):1220-31.[Abstract]
90. Brown DM, Michels M, Kaiser PK, et al. Ranibizumab versus verteporfin photodynamic therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Two-year results of the ANCHOR study. Ophthalmology. 2009 Jan;116(1):57-65.[Abstract]
91. Kaiser PK, Boyer DS, Cruess AF, et al; DENALI Study Group. Verteporfin plus ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration: twelve-month results of the DENALI study. Ophthalmology. 2012 May;119(5):1001-10.[Abstract]
92. Larsen M, Schmidt-Erfurth U, Lanzetta P, et al; MONT BLANC Study Group. Verteporfin plus ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration: twelve-month MONT BLANC study results. Ophthalmology. 2012 May;119(5):992-1000.[Abstract]
93. Lim TH, Lai TYY, Takahashi K, et al. Comparison of ranibizumab with or without verteporfin photodynamic therapy for polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy: the EVEREST II randomized clinical trial. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2020 Sep 1;138(9):935-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
94. Singer MA, Awh CC, Sadda S, et al. HORIZON: an open-label extension trial of ranibizumab for choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2012 Jun;119(6):1175-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
95. Silva R, Axer-Siegel R, Eldem B, et al; SECURE Study Group. The SECURE study: long-term safety of ranibizumab 0.5 mg in neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology. 2013 Jan;120(1):130-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Mahmood S, Roberts SA, Aslam TM, et al. Routine versus as-needed bevacizumab with 12-weekly assessment intervals for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: 92-week results of the GMAN trial. Ophthalmology. 2015 Jul;122(7):1348-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
97. Berg K, Pedersen TR, Sandvik L, et al. Comparison of ranibizumab and bevacizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration according to LUCAS treat-and-extend protocol. Ophthalmology. 2015 Jan;122(1):146-52.[Abstract][Full Text]
98. McKibbin M, Devonport H, Gale R, et al. Aflibercept in wet AMD beyond the first year of treatment: recommendations by an expert roundtable panel. Eye (Lond). 2015 Jul;29(suppl 1):S1-S11.[Abstract][Full Text]
99. Rayess N, Houston SK 3rd, Gupta OP, et al. Treatment outcomes after 3 years in neovascular age-related macular degeneration using a treat-and-extend regimen. Am J Ophthalmol. 2015 Jan;159(1):3-8.[Abstract]
100. Jackson TL, Chakravarthy U, Slakter JS, et al. Stereotactic radiotherapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: year 2 results of the INTREPID study. Ophthalmology. 2015 Jan;122(1):138-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. Evans JR, Igwe C, Jackson TL, et al. Radiotherapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Aug 26;(8):CD004004.[Abstract][Full Text]
102. Campochiaro PA, Marcus DM, Awh CC, et al. The port delivery system with ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: results from the randomized phase 2 ladder clinical trial. Ophthalmology. 2019 Aug;126(8):1141-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
103. The Retina Society. Primary analysis results of the phase 3 Archway trial of the port delivery system with ranibizumab for patients with neovascular AMD. Presented at the 53rd (virtual) Annual Scientific Meeting of The Retina Society, 2020. 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
104. Macular Society. New drug for dry AMD - your questions answered. Apr 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
105. Macular Society. Second drug for dry AMD becomes available in the US. Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
106. Liao DS, Grossi FV, El Mehdi D, et al. Complement C3 inhibitor pegcetacoplan for geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration: a randomized phase 2 trial. Ophthalmology. 2020 Feb;127(2):186-95.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Jaffe GJ, Westby K, Csaky KG, et al. C5 inhibitor avacincaptad pegol for geographic atrophy due to age-related macular degeneration: a randomized pivotal phase 2/3 trial. Ophthalmology. 2021 Apr;128(4):576-86.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Khanani AM, Patel SS, Staurenghi G, et al. Efficacy and safety of avacincaptad pegol in patients with geographic atrophy (GATHER2): 12-month results from a randomised, double-masked, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2023 Oct 21;402(10411):1449-58.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Jackson ML, Virgili G, Shepherd JD, et al. Vision rehabilitation preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2023 Mar;130(3):P271-335.[Abstract][Full Text]
110. Sunness JS, Rubin GS, Applegate CA, et al. Visual function abnormalities and prognosis in eyes with age-related geographic atrophy of the macula and good visual acuity. Ophthalmology. 1997 Oct;104(10):1677-91.[Abstract]
111. Bressler NM; Treatment of Age-Related Macular Degeneration with Photodynamic Therapy (TAP) Study Group. Photodynamic therapy of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration with verteporfin: two-year results of 2 randomized clinical trials-TAP report 2. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001 Feb;119(2):198-207.[Abstract]
112. Verteporfin In Photodynamic Therapy Study Group. Verteporfin therapy of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration: two-year results of a randomized clinical trial including lesions with occult with no classic choroidal neovascularization - verteporfin in photodynamic therapy report 2. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001 May;131(5):541-60. [Abstract]
113. Barbazetto I, Burdan A, Bressler NM, et al. Photodynamic therapy of subfoveal choroidal neovascularization with verteporfin: fluorescein angiographic guidelines for evaluation and treatment - TAP and VIP report No. 2. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003 Sep;121(9):1253-68.[Abstract]
114. Blinder KJ, Bradley S, Bressler NM, et al. Effect of lesion size, visual acuity, and lesion composition on visual acuity change with and without verteporfin therapy for choroidal neovascularization secondary to age-related macular degeneration: TAP and VIP report no. 1. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003 Sep;136(3):407-18.[Abstract]
115. Novartis. Global Safety Information for Healthcare Professionals. Beovu® Brolucizumab. 2021 [internet publication]. [Full Text]
116. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1996 May 2;334(18):1150-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med. 1994 Apr 14;330(15):1029-35.[Abstract]
118. Schlenker MB, Thiruchelvam D, Redelmeier DA. Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment and the risk of thromboembolism. Am J Ophthalmol. 2015 Sep;160(3):569-80.e5.[Abstract]
119. Dedania VS, Bakri SJ. Systemic safety of intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents in age-related macular degeneration. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2016 May;27(3):224-43.[Abstract]
120. Cox JT, Eliott D, Sobrin L. Inflammatory complications of intravitreal anti-VEGF injections. J Clin Med. 2021 Mar 2;10(5):981.[Abstract][Full Text]
121. Baumal CR, Bodaghi B, Singer M, et al. Expert opinion on management of intraocular inflammation, retinal vasculitis, and vascular occlusion after brolucizumab treatment. Ophthalmol Retina. 2021 Jun;5(6):519-27.[Abstract][Full Text]