- Home
- Search
- Tools
- CME
- Help & Feedback
- About epocrates
- Business Solutions
Highlights & Basics
- Sickle cell anemia is a disease of red blood cells. It is caused by an autosomal recessive single gene defect in the beta chain of hemoglobin, which results in production of sickle cell hemoglobin (HbS).
- Sickle cells can obstruct blood flow and break down prematurely, and are associated with varying degrees of anemia.
- Obstruction of small blood capillaries can cause painful crises, damage to major organs, and increased vulnerability to severe infections.
- Associated with lifelong morbidity and reduced life expectancy.
- All infants are screened, with findings confirmed by hemoglobin electrophoresis, complete blood count, reticulocyte count, and peripheral blood smear.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Images
The sickling hemoglobins and the mutations that cause them
Hand-foot syndrome in patient age 14 months with homozygous sickle cell disease
Avascular necrosis of the femoral head in patient with heterozygous (hemoglobin SC) sickle cell anemia
Chest x-ray in acute chest syndrome
Red cells in sickle cell disease
Age distribution of clinical problems in sickle cell disease
Survival and recurrence rate for patients with sickle cell disease after bone marrow transplantation
Citations
DeBaun MR, Jordan LC, King AA, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for sickle cell disease: prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cerebrovascular disease in children and adults. Blood Adv. 2020 Apr 28;4(8):1554-88.[Abstract][Full Text]
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Evidence-based management of sickle cell disease: expert panel report, 2014. Sep 2014 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Bain BJ, Daniel Y, Henthorn J, et al. Significant haemoglobinopathies: a guideline for screening and diagnosis. Br J Haematol. 2023 Jun;201(6):1047-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
Chou ST, Alsawas M, Fasano RM, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for sickle cell disease: transfusion support. Blood Adv. 2020 Jan 28;4(2):327-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
Trompeter S, Massey E, Robinson S, et al. Position paper on International Collaboration for Transfusion Medicine (ICTM) Guideline 'Red blood cell specifications for patients with hemoglobinopathies: a systematic review and guideline'. Br J Haematol. 2020 May;189(3):424-27.[Abstract][Full Text]
Wethers DL. Sickle cell disease in childhood: part I. Laboratory diagnosis, pathophysiology and health maintenance. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Sep 1;62(5):1013-20, 1027-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
1. Pass KA, Lane PA, Fernhoff PM, et al. US newborn screening system guidelines II: follow-up of children, diagnosis, management, and evaluation. Statement of the Council of Regional Networks for Genetic Services (CORN). J Pediatr. 2000 Oct;137(suppl 4):S1-46.[Abstract]
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Data and statistics on sickle cell disease. May 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
3. Piel FB, Hay SI, Gupta S, et al. Global burden of sickle cell anaemia in children under five, 2010-2050: modelling based on demographics, excess mortality, and interventions. PLoS Med. 2013;10(7):e1001484.[Abstract][Full Text]
4. Piel FB, Patil AP, Howes RE, et al. Global epidemiology of sickle haemoglobin in neonates: a contemporary geostatistical model-based map and population estimates. Lancet. 2013 Jan 12;381(9861):142-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
5. GBD 2021 Sickle Cell Disease Collaborators. Global, regional, and national prevalence and mortality burden of sickle cell disease, 2000-2021: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. Lancet Haematol. 2023 Aug;10(8):e585-99.[Abstract][Full Text]
6. Sundd P, Gladwin MT, Novelli EM. Pathophysiology of sickle cell disease. Annu Rev Pathol. 2019 Jan 24;14:263-92.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Piel FB, Steinberg MH, Rees DC. Sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2017 Apr 20;376(16):1561-73.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. Hebbel RP, Yamada O, Moldow CF, et al. Abnormal adherence of sickle erythrocytes to cultured vascular endothelium: possible mechanism for microvascular occlusion in sickle cell disease. J Clin Invest. 1980 Jan;65(1):154-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Hebbel RP, Osarogiagbon R, Kaul D. The endothelial biology of sickle cell disease: inflammation and a chronic vasculopathy. Microcirculation. 2004 Mar;11(2):129-51.[Abstract]
10. Yale SH, Nagib N, Guthrie T. Approach to the vaso-occlusive crisis in adults with sickle cell disease. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Mar 1;61(5):1349-56, 1363-4.[Abstract]
11. Kato GJ, Onyekwere OC, Gladwin MT. Pulmonary hypertension in sickle cell disease: relevance to children. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2007 Apr-May;24(3):159-70.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Naik RP, Smith-Whitley K, Hassell KL, et al. Clinical outcomes associated with sickle cell trait: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Nov 6;169(9):619-27.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG practice bulletin No. 78: hemoglobinopathies in pregnancy. Aug 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
14. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee opinion no. 690: carrier screening in the age of genomic medicine. Mar 2017 [internet publication].[Abstract][Full Text]
15. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee opinion no. 691: carrier screening for genetic conditions. Mar 2017 [internet publication].[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Dormandy E, Gulliford M, Bryan S, et al. Effectiveness of earlier antenatal screening for sickle cell disease and thalassaemia in primary care: cluster randomised trial. 2010 Oct 5;341:c5132.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. US Preventive Services Task Force. Sickle cell disease (hemoglobinopathies) in newborns: screening - referred topic. Sep 2007 [internet publication].[Full Text]
18. Simundic AM, Bölenius K, Cadamuro J, et al. Joint EFLM-COLABIOCLI recommendation for venous blood sampling. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2018;56(12):2015-38.[Abstract]
19. Gill FM, Sleeper LA, Weiner SJ, et al; Cooperative Study of Sickle Cell Disease. Clinical events in the first decade in a cohort of infants with sickle cell disease. Blood. 1995 Jul 15;86(2):776-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
20. Miller ST, Sleeper LA, Pegelow CH, et al. Prediction of adverse outcomes in children with sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jan 13;342(2):83-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
21. Gualandro SF, Fonseca GH, Yokomizo IK, et al. Cohort study of adult patients with haemoglobin SC disease: clinical characteristics and predictors of mortality. Br J Haematol. 2015 Nov;171(4):631-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
22. Mukisi-Mukaza M, Elbaz A, Samuel-Leborgne Y, et al. Prevalence, clinical features, and risk factors of osteonecrosis of the femoral head among adults with sickle cell disease. Orthopedics. 2000 Apr;23(4):357-63.[Abstract]
23. Centers for disease control and prevention (CDC). Hemoglobinopathies: current practices for screening, confirmation and follow-up. Dec 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
24. Vosmaer A, Pereira RR, Koenderman JS, et al. Coagulation abnormalities in Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010 Jan;92(1):121-8.[Abstract]
25. Eckman J. Neonatal screening. In: Embry SH, Hebbel RP, Mohandas N, et al, eds. Sickle cell disease: basic principles and clinical practice. New York, NY: Raven Press Ltd.; 1994.
26. DeBaun MR, Jordan LC, King AA, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for sickle cell disease: prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cerebrovascular disease in children and adults. Blood Adv. 2020 Apr 28;4(8):1554-88.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Cherry MG, Greenhalgh J, Osipenko L, et al. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of primary stroke prevention in children with sickle cell disease: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2012;16(43):1-129.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Alexandrov AV, Sloan MA, Tegeler CH, et al; American Society of Neuroimaging Practice Guidelines Committee. Practice standards for transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound. Part II. Clinical indications and expected outcomes. J Neuroimaging. 2012 Jul;22(3):215-24.[Abstract]
29. Pecker LH, Sharma D, Nero A, et al. Knowledge gaps in reproductive and sexual health in girls and women with sickle cell disease. Br J Haematol. 2021 Sep;194(6):970-79.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Evidence-based management of sickle cell disease: expert panel report, 2014. Sep 2014 [internet publication].[Full Text]
31. Stephens AD, Angastiniotis M, Baysal E, et al; International Council for the Standardisation of Haematology (ICSH). ICSH recommendations for the measurement of haemoglobin F. Int J Lab Hematol. 2012 Feb;34(1):14-20.[Abstract]
32. Lobitz S, Telfer P, Cela E, et al. Newborn screening for sickle cell disease in Europe: recommendations from a Pan-European Consensus Conference. Br J Haematol. 2018 Nov;183(4):648-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Bain BJ, Daniel Y, Henthorn J, et al. Significant haemoglobinopathies: a guideline for screening and diagnosis. Br J Haematol. 2023 Jun;201(6):1047-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Asnani MR, Quimby KR, Bennett NR, et al. Interventions for patients and caregivers to improve knowledge of sickle cell disease and recognition of its related complications. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Oct 6;(10):CD011175.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Rankine-Mullings AE, Owusu-Ofori S. Prophylactic antibiotics for preventing pneumococcal infection in children with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Mar 8;(3):CD003427.[Abstract][Full Text]
36. Dekker LH, Fijnvandraat K, Brabin BJ, et al. Micronutrients and sickle cell disease, effects on growth, infection and vaso-occlusive crisis: a systematic review. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2012 Aug;59(2):211-5.[Abstract]
37. Platt OS, Brambilla DJ, Rosse WF, et al. Mortality in sickle cell disease - life expectancy and risk factors for early death. N Engl J Med. 1994 Jun 9;330(23):1639-44.[Abstract][Full Text]
38. Redwood AM, Williams EM, Desai P, et al. Climate and painful crisis of sickle-cell disease in Jamaica. BMJ. 1976 Jan 10;1(6001):66-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Mohan J, Marshall JM, Reid HL, et al. Peripheral vascular response to mild indirect cooling in patients with homozygous sickle cell (SS) disease and the frequency of painful crisis. Clin Sci (Lond). 1998 Feb;94(2):111-20.[Abstract]
40. Beutler E. Disorders of hemoglobin structure: sickle cell anemia and related abnormalities. In: Lichtman MA, Beutler E, Kaushansky K, et al, eds. Williams hematology. 7th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2006:667-700.
41. Charache S, Terrin ML, Moore RD, et al. Effect of hydroxyurea on the frequency of painful crises in sickle cell anemia. N Engl J Med. 1995 May 18;332(20):1317-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Lanzkron S, Strouse JJ, Wilson R, et al. Systematic review: hydroxyurea for the treatment of adults with sickle cell disease. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Jun 17;148(12):939-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Segal JB, Strouse JJ, Beach MC, et al. Hydroxyurea for the treatment of sickle cell disease. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep). 2008 Mar;(165):1-95.[Abstract]
44. Hankins JS, Ware RE, Rogers ZR, et al. Long-term hydroxyurea therapy for infants with sickle cell anemia: the HUSOFT extension study. Blood. 2005 Oct 1;106(7):2269-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
45. Scott JP, Hillery CA, Brown ER, et al. Hydroxyurea therapy in children severely affected with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr. 1996 Jun;128(6):820-8.[Abstract]
46. Wang WC, Helms RW, Lynn HS, et al. Effect of hydroxyurea on growth in children with sickle cell anemia: results of the HUG-KIDS Study. J Pediatr. 2002 Feb;140(2):225-9.[Abstract]
47. Wang WC, Ware RE, Miller ST, et al; BABY HUG investigators. Hydroxycarbamide in very young children with sickle-cell anaemia: a multicentre, randomised, controlled trial (BABY HUG). Lancet. 2011 May 14;377(9778):1663-72.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Zimmerman SA, Schultz WH, Davis JS, et al. Sustained long-term hematologic efficacy of hydroxyurea at maximum tolerated dose in children with sickle cell disease. Blood. 2004 Mar 15;103(6):2039-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Rankine-Mullings AE, Nevitt SJ. Hydroxyurea (hydroxycarbamide) for sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Sep 1;9(9):CD002202.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Ware RE, Helms RW; SWiTCH Investigators. Stroke with transfusions changing to hydroxyurea (SWiTCH). Blood. 2012 Apr 26;119(17):3925-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Kinney TR, Helms RW, O'Branski EE, et al. Safety of hydroxyurea in children with sickle cell anemia: results of the HUG-KIDS study, a phase I/II trial. Pediatric Hydroxyurea Group. Blood. 1999 Sep 1;94(5):1550-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Steinberg MH, Barton F, Castro O, et al. Effect of hydroxyurea on mortality and morbidity in adult sickle cell anemia: risks and benefits up to 9 years of treatment. JAMA. 2003 Apr 2;289(13):1645-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Voskaridou E, Christoulas D, Bilalis A, et al. The effect of prolonged administration of hydroxyurea on morbidity and mortality in adult patients with sickle cell syndromes: results of a 17-year, single-center trial (LaSHS). Blood. 2010 Mar 25;115(12):2354-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Steinberg MH, McCarthy WF, Castro O, et al. The risks and benefits of long-term use of hydroxyurea in sickle cell anemia: a 17.5 year follow-up. Am J Hematol. 2010 Jun;85(6):403-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Cieri-Hutcherson NE, Hutcherson TC, Conway-Habes EE, et al. Systematic review of l-glutamine for prevention of vaso-occlusive pain crisis in patients with sickle cell disease. Pharmacotherapy. 2019 Nov;39(11):1095-1104.[Abstract]
56. Niihara Y, Miller ST, Kanter J, et al. A phase 3 trial of L-glutamine in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2018 Jul 19;379(3):226-35.[Abstract]
57. Quinn CT. L-glutamine for sickle cell anemia: more questions than answers. Blood. 2018 Aug 16;132(7):689-93.[Abstract]
58. ClinicalTrials.gov. Study of two doses of crizanlizumab versus placebo in adolescent and adult sickle cell disease patients (STAND). ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03814746. May 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
59. Ataga KI, Kutlar A, Kanter J, et al. Crizanlizumab for the prevention of pain crises in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2017 Feb 2;376(5):429-39.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Kutlar A, Kanter J, Liles DK, et al. Effect of crizanlizumab on pain crises in subgroups of patients with sickle cell disease: a SUSTAIN study analysis. Am J Hematol. 2019 Jan;94(1):55-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. Han J, Saraf SL, Gordeuk VR. Systematic review of crizanlizumab: a new parenteral option to reduce vaso-occlusive pain crises in patients with sickle cell disease. Pharmacotherapy. 2020 Jun;40(6):535-43.[Abstract]
62. Vichinsky EP, Haberkern CM, Neumayr L, et al; The Preoperative Transfusion in Sickle Cell Disease Study Group. A comparison of conservative and aggressive transfusion regimens in the perioperative management of sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 1995 Jul 27;333(4):206-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
63. Estcourt LJ, Kimber C, Trivella M, et al. Preoperative blood transfusions for sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 2;(9):CD003149.[Abstract][Full Text]
64. Howard J, Malfroy M, Llewelyn C, et al. The Transfusion Alternatives Preoperatively in Sickle Cell Disease (TAPS) study: a randomised, controlled, multicentre clinical trial. Lancet. 2013 Mar 16;381(9870):930-8.[Abstract]
65. Lee MT, Piomelli S, Granger S, et al. Stroke Prevention Trial in Sickle Cell Anemia (STOP): extended follow-up and final results. Blood. 2006 Aug 1;108(3):847-52.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. Adams RJ, Brambilla D. Discontinuing prophylactic transfusions used to prevent stroke in sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2005 Dec 29;353(26):2769-78.[Abstract][Full Text]
67. Compernolle V, Chou ST, Tanael S, et al. Red blood cell specifications for patients with hemoglobinopathies: a systematic review and guideline. Transfusion. 2018 Jun;58(6):1555-66.[Abstract]
68. Chou ST, Alsawas M, Fasano RM, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for sickle cell disease: transfusion support. Blood Adv. 2020 Jan 28;4(2):327-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Trompeter S, Massey E, Robinson S, et al. Position paper on International Collaboration for Transfusion Medicine (ICTM) Guideline 'Red blood cell specifications for patients with hemoglobinopathies: a systematic review and guideline'. Br J Haematol. 2020 May;189(3):424-27.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. Fasano RM, Meyer EK, Branscomb J, et al. Impact of red blood cell antigen matching on alloimmunization and transfusion complications in patients with sickle cell disease: a systematic review. Transfus Med Rev. 2019 Jan;33(1):12-23.[Abstract]
71. Oteng-Ntim E, Pavord S, Howard R, et al. Management of sickle cell disease in pregnancy. A British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol. 2021 Sep;194(6):980-95.[Abstract][Full Text]
72. Boafor TK, Olayemi E, Galadanci N, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with sickle-cell disease in low and high income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2016 Apr;123(5):691-8.[Abstract]
73. Malinowski AK, Shehata N, D'Souza R, et al. Prophylactic transfusion for pregnant women with sickle cell disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Blood. 2015 Nov 19;126(21):2424-35.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). FDA is alerting patients and health care professionals about the voluntary withdrawal of Oxbryta from the market due to safety concerns. September 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
75. European Medicines Agency (EMA). EMA recommends suspension of sickle cell disease medicine Oxbryta. September 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
76. Brandow AM, Carroll CP, Creary S, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for sickle cell disease: management of acute and chronic pain. Blood Adv. 2020 Jun 23;4(12):2656-701.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Jacobson SJ, Kopecky EA, Joshi P, et al. Randomised trial of oral morphine for painful episodes of sickle-cell disease in children. Lancet. 1997 Nov 8;350(9088):1358-61.[Abstract]
78. Cooper TE, Hambleton IR, Ballas SK, et al. Pharmacological interventions for painful sickle cell vaso-occlusive crises in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Nov 14;2019(11):CD012187.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Aboursheid T, Albaroudi O, Alahdab F. Inhaled nitric oxide for treating pain crises in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Oct 11;(10):CD011808.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Dampier CD, Wager CG, Harrison R, et al; Investigators of the Sickle Cell Disease Clinical Research Network (SCDCRN). Impact of PCA strategies on pain intensity and functional assessment measures in adults with sickle cell disease during hospitalized vaso-occlusive episodes. Am J Hematol. 2012 Oct;87(10):E71-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
81. Vichinsky EP, Neumayr LD, Earles AN, et al. Causes and outcomes of the acute chest syndrome in sickle cell disease. National Acute Chest Syndrome Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jun 22;342(25):1855-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Dolatkhah R, Dastgiri S. Blood transfusions for treating acute chest syndrome in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jan 16;(1):CD007843.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Bundy DG, Richardson TE, Hall M, et al. Association of guideline-adherent antibiotic treatment with readmission of children with sickle cell disease hospitalized with acute chest syndrome. JAMA Pediatr. 2017 Nov 1;171(11):1090-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. Kanter J, Liem RI, Bernaudin F, et al. American Society of Hematology 2021 guidelines for sickle cell disease: stem cell transplantation. Blood Adv. 2021 Sep 28;5(18):3668-89.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Oringanje C, Nemecek E, Oniyangi O. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 3;(7):CD007001.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Shenoy S, Angelucci E, Arnold SD, et al. Current results and future research priorities in late effects after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for children with sickle cell disease and thalassemia: a consensus statement from the Second Pediatric Blood and Marrow Transplant Consortium International Conference on Late Effects after Pediatric Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2017 Apr;23(4):552-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Smith WR, Penberthy LT, Bovbjerg VE, et al. Daily assessment of pain in adults with sickle cell disease. Ann Intern Med. 2008 Jan 15;148(2):94-101.[Abstract]
88. Anie KA, Green J. Psychological therapies for sickle cell disease and pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 May 8;(5):CD001916.[Abstract][Full Text]
89. Webster J, Osborne S, Rickard CM, et al. Clinically-indicated replacement versus routine replacement of peripheral venous catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jan 23;(1):CD007798.[Abstract][Full Text]
90. Martí-Carvajal AJ, Solà I, Agreda-Pérez LH. Treatment for avascular necrosis of bone in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Dec 5;(12):CD004344.[Abstract][Full Text]
91. Pfizer. Pfizer voluntarily withdraws all lots of sickle cell disease treatment OXBRYTA® (voxelotor) from worldwide markets. Sep 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
92. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: FDA restricts use of prescription codeine pain and cough medicines and tramadol pain medicines in children; recommends against use in breastfeeding women. Apr 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
93. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. Codeine: restricted use as analgesic in children and adolescents after European safety review. Jun 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
94. European Medicines Agency. Restrictions on use of codeine for pain relief in children - CMDh endorses PRAC recommendation. Jun 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
95. Frangoul H, Altshuler D, Cappellini MD, et al. CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing for sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia. N Engl J Med. 2021 Jan 21;384(3):252-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. ClinicalTrials.gov. A safety and efficacy study evaluating CTX001 in subjects with severe sickle cell disease. ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03745287. Nov 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
97. Locatelli F, Frangoul H, Corbacioglu S, et al. Efficacy and safety of a single dose of CTX001 for transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia and severe sicle cell disease. Paper presented at: European Hematology Association Congress 2022. Vienna, Austria.[Full Text]
98. ClinicalTrials.gov. A long-term follow-up study in subjects who received CTX001. ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04208529. Nov 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
99. ClinicalTrials.gov. Evaluation of safety and efficacy of CTX001 in pediatric participants with severe sickle cell disease (SCD). ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT05329649. Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
100. Kanter J, Walters MC, Krishnamurti L, et al. Biologic and clinical efficacy of LentiGlobin for sickle cell disease. N Engl J Med. 2022 Feb 17;386(7):617-28.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study evaluating gene therapy with BB305 Lentiviral vector in sickle cell disease. ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04293185. Sep 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
102. McArthur JG, Svenstrup N, Chen C, et al. A novel, highly potent and selective phosphodiesterase-9 inhibitor for the treatment of sickle cell disease. Haematologica. 2020 Mar; 105(3):623-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
103. U.S. National library of medicine. Clinical trials. A study of IMR-687 in subjects with sickle cell disease. Jul 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
104. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study evaluating the efficacy and safety of Mitapivat (AG-348) in participants with sickle cell disease. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05031780. Mar 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
105. Rab MAE, Van Oirschot BA, Kosinski PA, et al. AG-348 (Mitapivat), an allosteric activator of red blood cell pyruvate kinase, increases enzymatic activity, protein stability, and ATP levels over a broad range of PKLR genotypes. Haematologica. 2021 Jan 1;106(1):238-49.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Liem RI, Lanzkron S, D Coates T, et al. American Society of Hematology 2019 guidelines for sickle cell disease: cardiopulmonary and kidney disease. Blood Adv. 2019 Dec 10;3(23):3867-97.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Meschia JF, Bushnell C, Boden-Albala B, et al. Guidelines for the primary prevention of stroke: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2014 Dec;45(12):3754-832.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Shah FT, Porter JB, Sadasivam N, et al. Guidelines for the monitoring and management of iron overload in patients with haemoglobinopathies and rare anaemias. Br J Haematol. 2022 Jan;196(2):336-50.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Qureshi A, Kaya B, Pancham S, et al. Guidelines for the use of hydroxycarbamide in children and adults with sickle cell disease: a British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol. 2018 May;181(4):460-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
110. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sickle cell disease: managing acute painful episodes in hospital. Jun 2012 [internet publication].[Full Text]
111. Jiao B, Johnson KM, Ramsey SD, et al. Long-term survival with sickle cell disease: a nationwide cohort study of Medicare and Medicaid beneficiaries. Blood Adv. 2023 Jul 11;7(13):3276-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
112. Elmariah H, Garrett ME, De Castro LM, et al. Factors associated with survival in a contemporary adult sickle cell disease cohort. Am J Hematol. 2014 May;89(5):530-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
113. Grosse SD, Odame I, Atrash HK, et al. Sickle cell disease in Africa: a neglected cause of early childhood mortality. Am J Prev Med. 2011 Dec;41(6 suppl 4):S398-405.[Abstract][Full Text]
114. Ohene-Frempong K, Weiner SJ, Sleeper LA, et al. Cerebrovascular accidents in sickle cell disease: rates and risk factors. Blood. 1998 Jan 1;91(1):288-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
115. Stockman JA, Nigro MA, Mishkin MM, et al. Occlusion of large cerebral vessels in sickle-cell anemia. N Engl J Med. 1972 Oct 26;287(17):846-9.[Abstract]
116. Ware RE, Davis BR, Schultz WH, et al. Hydroxycarbamide versus chronic transfusion for maintenance of transcranial doppler flow velocities in children with sickle cell anaemia-TCD With Transfusions Changing to Hydroxyurea (TWiTCH): a multicentre, open-label, phase 3, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2016 Feb 13;387(10019):661-70.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. Miller ST, Jensen D, Rao SP. Less intensive long-term transfusion therapy for sickle cell anemia and cerebrovascular accident. J Pediatr. 1992 Jan;120(1):54-7.[Abstract]
118. Estcourt LJ, Kohli R, Hopewell S, et al. Blood transfusion for preventing primary and secondary stroke in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 27;(7):CD003146.[Abstract][Full Text]
119. Hulbert ML, McKinstry RC, Lacey JL, et al. Silent cerebral infarcts occur despite regular blood transfusion therapy after first strokes in children with sickle cell disease. Blood. 2011 Jan 20;117(3):772-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
120. Estcourt LJ, Kimber C, Hopewell S, et al. Interventions for preventing silent cerebral infarcts in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Apr 6;(4):CD012389.[Abstract][Full Text]
121. Fortin PM, Hopewell S, Estcourt LJ. Red blood cell transfusion to treat or prevent complications in sickle cell disease: an overview of Cochrane reviews. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 1;(8):CD012082.[Abstract][Full Text]
122. Vichinsky EP, Neumayr LD, Gold JI, et al; Neuropsychological Dysfunction and Neuroimaging Adult Sickle Cell Anemia Study Group. Neuropsychological dysfunction and neuroimaging abnormalities in neurologically intact adults with sickle cell anemia. JAMA. 2010 May 12;303(18):1823-31.[Abstract]
123. Krauss JS, Freant LJ, Lee JR. Gastrointestinal pathology in sickle cell disease. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 1998 Jan-Feb;28(1):19-23.[Abstract]
124. Omata M, Johnson CS, Tong M, et al. Pathological spectrum of liver diseases in sickle cell disease. Dig Dis Sci. 1986 Mar;31(3):247-56.[Abstract]
125. Schubert TT. Hepatobiliary system in sickle cell disease. Gastroenterology. 1986 Jun;90(6):2013-21.[Abstract]
126. Seguier-Lipszyc E, de Lagausie P, Benkerrou M, et al. Elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc. 2001 Mar;15(3):301-4.[Abstract]
127. Bonatsos G, Birbas K, Toutouzas K, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy in adults with sickle cell disease. Surg Endosc. 2001 Aug;15(8):816-9.[Abstract]
128. Owusu-Ofori S, Remmington T. Splenectomy versus conservative management for acute sequestration crises in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 7;(11):CD003425.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Oligbu G, Fallaha M, Pay L, et al. Risk of invasive pneumococcal disease in children with sickle cell disease in the era of conjugate vaccines: a systematic review of the literature. Br J Haematol. 2019 May;185(4):743-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
130. Claster S, Vichinsky EP. Managing sickle cell disease. BMJ. 2003 Nov 15;327(7424):1151-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
131. Leitão Guerra RL, Leitão Guerra CL, Bastos MG, et al. Sickle cell retinopathy: What we now understand using optical coherence tomography angiography. A systematic review. Blood Rev. 2019 May;35:32-42.[Abstract]
132. Rodgers GP, Roy MS, Noguchi CT, et al. Is there a role for selective vasodilation in the management of sickle cell disease? Blood. 1988 Mar;71(3):597-602.[Abstract][Full Text]
133. Myint KT, Sahoo S, Thein AW, et al. Laser therapy for retinopathy in sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Oct 9;(10):CD010790.[Abstract][Full Text]
134. Morgan AG. Sickle cell leg ulcers. Int J Dermatol. 1985 Dec;24(10):643-4.[Abstract]
135. Castro O, Gladwin MT. Pulmonary hypertension in sickle cell disease: mechanisms, diagnosis, and management. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2005 Oct;19(5):881-96.[Abstract]
136. Klings ES, Machado RF, Barst RJ, et al.; American Thoracic Society Ad Hoc Committee on Pulmonary Hypertension of Sickle Cell Disease. An official American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline: diagnosis, risk stratification, and management of pulmonary hypertension of sickle cell disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014 Mar 15;189(6):727-40.[Abstract]
137. Barst RJ, Rubin LJ, Long WA, et al. A comparison of continuous intravenous epoprostenol (prostacyclin) with conventional therapy for primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1996 Feb 1;334(5):296-301.[Abstract][Full Text]
138. McLaughlin VV, Genthner DE, Panella MM, et al. Compassionate use of continuous prostacyclin in the management of secondary pulmonary hypertension: a case series. Ann Intern Med. 1999 May 4;130(9):740-3.[Abstract]
139. Machado RF, Martyr S, Kato GJ, et al. Sildenafil therapy in patients with sickle cell disease and pulmonary hypertension. Br J Haematol. 2005 Aug;130(3):445-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
140. Olaosebikan R, Ernest K, Bojang K, et al. A randomized trial to compare the safety, tolerability, and effectiveness of 3 antimalarial regimens for the prevention of malaria in Nigerian patients with sickle cell disease. J Infect Dis. 2015 Aug 15;212(4):617-25.[Abstract][Full Text]
141. Mantadakis E, Cavender JD, Rogers ZR, et al. Prevalence of priapism in children and adolescents with sickle cell anemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1999 Nov-Dec;21(6):518-22.[Abstract]
142. Arduini GAO, Trovó de Marqui AB. Prevalence and characteristics of priapism in sickle cell disease. Hemoglobin. 2018 Mar;42(2):73-7.[Abstract]
143. Chinegwundoh FI, Smith S, Anie KA. Treatments for priapism in boys and men with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Apr 6;(4):CD004198.[Abstract][Full Text]
144. Phebus CK, Gloninger MF, Maciak BJ. Growth patterns by age and sex in children with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr. 1984 Jul;105(1):28-33.[Abstract]
145. Fung EB, Harmatz PR, Milet M, et al. Disparity in the management of iron overload between patients with sickle cell disease and thalassemia who received transfusions. Transfusion. 2008 Sep;48(9):1971-80.[Abstract]
146. Kwiatkowski JL, Hamdy M, El-Beshlawy A, et al. Deferiprone vs deferoxamine for transfusional iron overload in SCD and other anemias: a randomized, open-label noninferiority study. Blood Adv. 2022 Feb 22;6(4):1243-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
147. Meerpohl JJ, Schell LK, Rücker G, et al. Deferasirox for managing transfusional iron overload in people with sickle cell disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 May 27;(5):CD007477.[Abstract][Full Text]
148. Sridharan K, Sivaramakrishnan G. Efficacy and safety of iron chelators in thalassemia and sickle cell disease: a multiple treatment comparison network meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2018 Jun;11(6):641-50.[Abstract]
149. Nelson DA, Deuster PA, Carter R 3rd, et al. Sickle cell trait, rhabdomyolysis, and mortality among U.S. Army Soldiers. N Engl J Med. 2016 Aug 4;375(5):435-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
150. World Health Organization. Medical eligibility for contraceptive use. 5th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015.[Full Text]
151. Wethers DL. Sickle cell disease in childhood: part I. Laboratory diagnosis, pathophysiology and health maintenance. Am Fam Physician. 2000 Sep 1;62(5):1013-20, 1027-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
152. Lottenberg R, Hassell KL. An evidence-based approach to the treatment of adults with sickle cell disease. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2005:58-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
153. Haddad LB, Curtis KM, Legardy-Williams JK, et al. Contraception for individuals with sickle cell disease: a systematic review of the literature. Contraception. 2012 Jun;85(6):527-37.[Abstract]
154. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Influenza (flu): summary: 'prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) - United States, 2023-24'. Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
