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Anticoagulation management principles

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Overview

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Introduction 

Anticoagulants are among the most frequently prescribed medications in the US.
The most common indications are:

  • Stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation

  • Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism (VTE)

  • Prevention of valve thrombosis and arterial thromboembolism in patients with prosthetic heart valves.

Atrial fibrillation affects 700 to 775 per 100,000 people in the US.[1] VTE affects as many as 500,000 people in the US annually, and it is estimated that more than 1.8 million people in the US will have VTE by the year 2050.[2] [3] Therefore, the number of patients receiving anticoagulants is substantial and is expected to grow with time.
Management of anticoagulants is challenging as they may cause adverse drug events (ADEs), specifically bleeding, which leads to substantial morbidity and mortality. Anticoagulants are the most common drug class associated with an inpatient adverse event and have been shown to be the cause of 41% of deaths attributed to an ADE.[4] Warfarin is the second most commonly implicated drug in emergency department visits for ADEs in the US.[5] Careful and informed management of anticoagulants is therefore critical.
Anticoagulants inhibit the formation and propagation of blood clots and are used in the treatment of many conditions. While individual anticoagulants are specifically approved for a number of disorders, the use of anticoagulants is off-label for others. The level of evidence for use of anticoagulants varies, with a generally lower level of evidence for more rare disorders.
Anticoagulants can be given either orally or parenterally. Warfarin had been used for more than 50 years before dabigatran, the first alternative (non-vitamin K antagonist) oral anticoagulant, was introduced. Since then, many other alternative oral anticoagulants have become available (e.g., apixaban, edoxaban, rivaroxaban). As these newer agents result in anticoagulation by different mechanisms of action than warfarin, a new nomenclature was needed.[6] The naming of these new drugs has been controversial and has evolved over time. Published terms have included: new, novel, or non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs); target-specific oral anticoagulants (TSOACs); and direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs). A 2014 survey study administered to 150 leaders of 16 professional societies in North America and Europe identified DOACs as the favored term.[7]​ Nomenclature of agents is likely to change further as new therapeutic agents, which target Factors XI and XII, emerge.[8]

Key highlights

  • When deciding to initiate anticoagulation therapy, the risk of bleeding should be weighed against the therapeutic benefits. There are few absolute contraindications; however, anticoagulants should not be used in patients with active bleeding or in patients in whom imminent hemorrhage is anticipated. Before administering anticoagulation therapy, the risk of bleeding, as well as any risks associated with the condition being treated, should be assessed.

  • Anticoagulants are often initiated in primary care (e.g., prevention of stroke and arterial thromboembolism in patients with atrial fibrillation, patients with acute venous thromboembolism who do not require hospitalization). Initiating anticoagulation in hospitalized patients follows the same general principles as in the outpatient setting, with the exception that unfractionated heparin and other short-acting intravenous agents are options for these patients.

  • The initiation of anticoagulant therapy differs according to the agent(s) used, and the indication for therapy. For initial treatment of VTE ("initiation phase"), apixaban and rivaroxaban may be used at a higher dose, after which the treatment dose ("treatment phase") is used. Initiation of dabigatran and edoxaban requires parenteral anticoagulation first for 5-10 days before electing dabigatran or edoxaban for VTE therapy. Warfarin (and other vitamin K antagonists), when utilized for VTE treatment, must be given with overlapping parenteral anticoagulant therapy, which is then continued until the INR is ≥2.0 for at least 24 hours and at least 5 days of overlap has been achieved. In most patients prescribed an anticoagulant for atrial fibrillation, the treatment dose of the oral agent is started without the need for parenteral therapy or an initiation-dose regimen. In post acute ischemic stroke patients initiated on anticoagulation in the setting of atrial fibrillation, a strategy which includes use of a parenteral anticoagulant for initiation "bridging" may be associated with worse outcomes, so typically should be avoided.[9] [10]

  • Anticoagulation therapy requires regular maintenance and re-evaluation. Warfarin requires the most laboratory monitoring of any anticoagulant. It is dosed to achieve a target INR value that differs according to the indication (usually in the range of 2.0-3.5). INR should be performed frequently until a stable dose is achieved, after which it is typically monitored every 4 to 12 weeks depending on clinical circumstances. There is no need for routine laboratory monitoring in patients taking direct oral anticoagulants, though periodic monitoring of renal and hepatic function is suggested.[11] [12] [13] [14]

  • The need for elective surgery or an invasive procedure in a patient taking anticoagulants is a particularly challenging situation. Key decisions include: determining whether the anticoagulant needs to be interrupted; the timing of interruption; and for warfarin, whether to offer bridging therapy (i.e., use of a shorter-acting parenteral anticoagulant, such as low molecular weight heparin, to reduce the period without effective anticoagulation while warfarin is held). These decisions are based on the bleeding risk associated with the procedure, as well as the patient's thromboembolic risk when anticoagulants are held.

  • Concomitant antithrombotic agents increase bleeding risk. For patients on warfarin and an antiplatelet agent, more frequent INR monitoring, maintaining an INR of 2.0 to 2.5, and using low-dose aspirin and clopidogrel as the preferred antiplatelet regimen may decrease the risk of bleeding. There are only a few indications that definitively require dual or triple antithrombotic therapy. The greatest bleeding risk is in patients that require dual antiplatelet therapy in conjunction with anticoagulation (also known as triple antithrombotic therapy). Triple antithrombotic therapy should be avoided in most patients and, when used, should be continued for the shortest possible period and only in high thrombotic risk patients.[15]​ Antiplatelet agents should not be combined with anticoagulants for the purpose of primary prevention of cardiovascular events.

  • Management of bleeding during anticoagulation requires a comprehensive evaluation and various interventions to mitigate the risk of morbidity and mortality (e.g., source control, blood products, nonspecific prohemostatic agents, and reversal agents). After bleeding has been controlled, the patient should be assessed and a decision made whether and, if so, when to resume anticoagulation.

Algorithms and tables

Perioperative management of vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)
Perioperative management of vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)
Adapted by BMJ Knowledge Centre from Douketis JD et al. Chest. 2022 Nov;162(5):e207-43; used with permission
Perioperative management of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs)
Perioperative management of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs)
Adapted by BMJ Knowledge Centre from Douketis JD et al. Chest. 2022 Nov;162(5):e207-43; used with permission
Approach to the management of acute hemorrhage in an anticoagulated patient
Approach to the management of acute hemorrhage in an anticoagulated patient
Produced by SM Stevens, MD and SC Woller, MD; used with permission
Risk stratification for procedural bleed risk (* No residual anticoagulant effect at the time of pro
Risk stratification for procedural bleed risk (* No residual anticoagulant effect at the time of procedure [i.e., four to five drug half-life interruptions pre-procedure]; † Includes spinal and epidural anesthesia or any other neuraxial [e.g., pain management] intervention; consider not only absolute risk for major bleeding but potentially devastating consequences of epidural bleeding and associated lower limb paralysis; ‡ Some residual anticoagulant effect allowed [i.e., two to three drug half-life interruptions pre-procedure]; § Radial approach may be considered minimal bleed risk compared with femoral approach; ¶ Procedure can be safely done under full-dose anticoagulation [may consider holding DOAC dose day of procedure to avoid peak anticoagulant effects])
Douketis JD et al. Chest. 2022 Nov;162(5):e207-43; used with permission
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of reversal agents (UFH = unfractionated heparin; LMWH = low
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of reversal agents (UFH = unfractionated heparin; LMWH = low molecular weight heparin; TRALI = transfusion-related acute lung injury *Guidelines support the use of 4-factor PCC in patients with life-threatening bleeding)
Created by the BMJ Knowledge Centre

Indications for anticoagulation

Thrombotic conditions can generally be divided into arterial thromboembolism (ATE) and venous thromboembolism (VTE). Anticoagulants are indicated in both ATE and VTE for the treatment of existing thrombosis and for the primary and secondary prevention of thrombosis.
Treatment of existing thrombosis:

  • Acute VTE (pulmonary embolism and deep vein thrombosis)

  • VTE in unusual sites (e.g., splanchnic vein thrombosis, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis)

  • Intracardiac and left ventricular (LV) thrombus[16]

  • Acute coronary syndrome

  • Acute ATE (usually attributable to cardioembolism) in arterial sites such as the cerebral arteries or the extremities

  • Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia with acute thrombus

  • Cerebral vein thrombosis.

Primary prevention of thrombosis:

  • Patients with atrial fibrillation with an increased risk for stroke and other ATE

  • Patients with mechanical heart valves to prevent stroke and ATE

  • Hospitalized medical, surgical, or traumatic nonsurgical patients at an elevated risk of hospital-associated VTE, including patients hospitalized with COVID-19[17] [18] [19]

  • VTE prophylaxis (post-hospitalization) following: major orthopedic surgeries (i.e., hip and knee replacement surgery, hip fracture surgery); abdominal and pelvic surgery for cancer; moderate-to-severe trauma without surgery; and possibly in selected high-risk patients after medical hospitalization[20] [21]

  • Selected patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathies at risk for LV thrombus[16]

  • Ambulatory patients with cancer at intermediate- to high-risk of thrombosis (Khorana score ≥2), receiving systemic therapy[22] [23] [24]​[25]

  • Patients with multiple myeloma receiving thalidomide or lenolidomide-based regimens with chemotherapy and/or dexamethasone.[25]​

Secondary prevention of thrombosis:

  • Patients with a history of VTE for which the risk of recurrent thrombosis is estimated to outweigh the risks and burden of continued anticoagulation therapy

  • Patients with a history of cardioembolic stroke or other ATE in the setting of atrial fibrillation or antiphospholipid syndrome

  • Prevention of recurrent miscarriages (presumed to be related to thrombosis impairing placental function, especially in antiphospholipid syndrome); although the efficacy of anticoagulants for this indication is uncertain.[26]

Specific anticoagulants are approved for a variety of indications; complete prescribing information and society guidelines should be consulted before initiating treatment.

Indications: outcome event assessment

The patient population in which anticoagulation is used is heterogeneous, and the rate of outcome events (e.g., stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation) that anticoagulation is intended to prevent varies greatly based on individual patient risk, highlighting the need for individualized risk assessments.
The risk of arterial and venous thrombosis in patients with atrial fibrillation, mechanical heart valves, and venous thromboembolism (VTE) can be estimated.[27] [28] [29]​ Formalized risk assessment scores for the outcome of stroke among patients with atrial fibrillation exist (e.g., CHADS2, CHA2DS2-VASc), and based on specific patient characteristics, the annual risk for stroke is estimated to range from 0.2% to >12%.[30] [31]​ The risk of recurrent venous thrombosis after an initial thromboembolic event varies based on the presence, robustness, and perpetuity of thrombosis risk factors at the time of diagnosis; it ranges from a 5-year risk of <3% among patients with surgically-provoked thrombosis, to an annual risk of >15% in patients with thrombosis and cancer.[32] [33]​ In patients with mechanical heart valves, the relative risk for thromboembolism and valve thrombosis among patients taking warfarin compared to no therapy was 0.21 and 0.11, respectively.[28]
Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) appear to be associated with a similar or lower risk of major bleeding compared to warfarin when used for the treatment of VTE or the prevention of stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation.[27] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42]​​ This comparative safety may increase the likelihood of anticoagulant use among patients who would otherwise not be considered candidates for anticoagulation and for those patients where the bleeding risk associated with long-term anticoagulation therapy may be identified as acceptable.[40] [43] [44] [45]​​ Less evidence is available comparing outcomes directly between different DOACs. Large registries which have utilized stratification by propensity score or other methods to mitigate lack of randomization have suggested similar efficacy between agents, and a tendency toward less bleeding associated with apixaban use.[46] [47] [48]
An elevated risk of bleeding (see contraindications sections) and thrombosis often coexist.[49] [50] In these circumstances, a careful discussion surrounding the risks and uncertainties associated with anticoagulation therapy is warranted. Formalized attempts to measure and qualify a patient's values and preferences may inform the role of anticoagulation therapy when there is uncertainty surrounding the risks and benefits.[51]
content by BMJ Group
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Images

  • Perioperative management of vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)

    Perioperative management of vitamin K antagonists (warfarin)

  • Perioperative management of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs)

    Perioperative management of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs)

  • Approach to the management of acute hemorrhage in an anticoagulated patient

    Approach to the management of acute hemorrhage in an anticoagulated patient

  • Risk stratification for procedural bleed risk (* No residual anticoagulant effect at the time of pro

    Risk stratification for procedural bleed risk (* No residual anticoagulant effect at the time of procedure [i.e., four to five drug half-life interruptions pre-procedure]; † Includes spinal and epidural anesthesia or any other neuraxial [e.g., pain management] intervention; consider not only absolute risk for major bleeding but potentially devastating consequences of epidural bleeding and associated lower limb paralysis; ‡ Some residual anticoagulant effect allowed [i.e., two to three drug half-life interruptions pre-procedure]; § Radial approach may be considered minimal bleed risk compared with femoral approach; ¶ Procedure can be safely done under full-dose anticoagulation [may consider holding DOAC dose day of procedure to avoid peak anticoagulant effects])

  • Summary of advantages and disadvantages of reversal agents (UFH = unfractionated heparin; LMWH = low

    Summary of advantages and disadvantages of reversal agents (UFH = unfractionated heparin; LMWH = low molecular weight heparin; TRALI = transfusion-related acute lung injury *Guidelines support the use of 4-factor PCC in patients with life-threatening bleeding)

  • Qualitative laboratory measurement of direct oral anticoagulants with standard tests

    Qualitative laboratory measurement of direct oral anticoagulants with standard tests

  • Management of anticoagulant-related hemorrhage. aPCC indicates activated prothrombin complex concent

    Management of anticoagulant-related hemorrhage. aPCC indicates activated prothrombin complex concentrate; DOAC, direct oral anticoagulant; ICH, intracerebral hemorrhage; INR, international normalized ratio; and PCC, prothrombin complex concentrate.

  • Possible interactions with warfarin. This list is not exhaustive and a local drug formulary should b

    Possible interactions with warfarin. This list is not exhaustive and a local drug formulary should be consulted before prescribing any drug in patients on warfarin

Citations

    Key Articles

    • Stevens SM, Woller SC, Kreuziger LB, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: second update of the CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest. 2021 Dec;160(6):e545-e608.[Abstract][Full Text]

    • Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, et al. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(suppl 2):e24S-43S.[Abstract][Full Text]

    • Cuker A, Arepally GM, Chong BH, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood Adv. 2018 Nov 27;2(22):3360-92.[Abstract][Full Text]

    • Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, et al. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(suppl 2):e44S-88S.[Abstract][Full Text]

    • Witt DM, Nieuwlaat R, Clark NP, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: optimal management of anticoagulation therapy. Blood Adv. 2018 Nov 27;2(22):3257-91.[Abstract][Full Text]

    Other Online Resources

    • HEMORR2HAGES Score for major bleeding risk
    • ATRIA Bleeding Risk Score
    • Warfarin dosing
    • SAMe-TT2R2 score
    • Anticoagulation Forum Centers of Excellence
    • Management of anticoagulation in the peri-procedural period
    • University of Michigan: MAQI2 anticoagulation toolkit
    • National Blood Clot Alliance: Stop The Clot®
    • American Heart Association: a patient's guide to taking warfarin

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