Highlights & Basics
- Alzheimer disease (AD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a global, nonreversible impairment in cerebral functioning.
- AD is characterized by memory loss, loss of social and occupational functioning, diminished executive function, speech and motor deficits, personality change, and behavioral and psychological disturbance.
- It has a deteriorating course over up to 8-10 years.
- Brain lesions are marked by neurofibrillary tangles, senile plaques, neuronal loss, and brain atrophy, with defects in acetylcholine synthesis at the cellular level.
- Treatment requires a multidisciplinary approach with increasing emphasis on treating behavioral and psychological symptoms. Cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine have some evidence of efficacy in treating the symptoms of the disease. Emerging treatments include monoclonal antibodies that target amyloid-beta, with the aim of slowing decline in cognition and function.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Citations
Livingston G, Huntley J, Liu KY, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing commission. Lancet. 2024 Aug 10;404(10452):572-628.[Abstract]
American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: dementia. 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
McShane R, Westby MJ, Roberts E, et al. Memantine for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Mar 20;(3):CD003154.[Abstract][Full Text]
Birks JS, Chong LY, Grimley Evans J. Rivastigmine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Sep 22;(9):CD001191.[Abstract][Full Text]
Birks JS, Harvey RJ. Donepezil for dementia due to Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jun 18;(6):CD001190.[Abstract][Full Text]
Reus VI, Fochtmann LJ, Eyler AE, et al. The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline on the use of antipsychotics to treat agitation or psychosis in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2016 May 1;173(5):543-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
- Alzheimer's Association: 10 early signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's and dementia
- Saint Louis University School of Medicine: SLUMS Examination
- Mini-Cog©
- Montreal Cognitive Assessment
- Alzheimer's Association
- Alzheimer's and related Dementias Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center
- National Institute on Aging: Alzheimer's caregiving
- MedlinePlus: Alzheimer's caregivers
- Family Caregiver Alliance resource center
- National Institute on Aging: Alzheimer's caregiving - home safety tips
- Alzheimer's Society: how technology can help
- Alzheimer's Association: end-of-life planning
- Alzheimer's Disease International: world alzheimer report 2021
1. Grossman H, Bergmann C, Parker S. Dementia: a brief review. Mt Sinai J Med. 2006 Nov;73(7):985-92.[Abstract]
2. Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Bienias JL, et al. Alzheimer disease in the US population: prevalence estimates using the 2000 census. Arch Neurol. 2003 Aug;60(8):1119-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., text revision, (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2022.
4. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5-TR neurocognitive disorders supplement: updated excerpts for delirium codes, major and mild neurocognitive disorders. Nov 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
5. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5-TR update: supplement to diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition, text revision. Sep 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
6. GBD 2016 Dementia Collaborators. Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol. 2019 Jan;18(1):88-106.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators. Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Public Health. 2022 Feb;7(2):e105-25.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. Kramarow EA. Diagnosed dementia in adults age 65 and older:United States, 2022. Natl Health Stat Report. 2024 Jun;(203):1-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Alzheimer's Association. 2023 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures. Alzheimers Dement. 2023 Apr;19(4):1598-695.[Abstract]
10. Niu H, Álvarez-Álvarez I, Guillén-Grima F, et al. Prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer's disease in Europe: a meta-analysis. Neurologia. 2017 Oct;32(8):523-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Bacigalupo I, Mayer F, Lacorte E, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of dementia in Europe: estimates from the highest-quality studies adopting the DSM IV diagnostic criteria. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;66(4):1471-81.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Matthews KA, Xu W, Gaglioti AH, et al. Racial and ethnic estimates of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias in the United States (2015-2060) in adults aged ≥65 years. Alzheimers Dement. 2019 Jan;15(1):17-24.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Manly JJ, Jones RN, Langa KM, et al. Estimating the prevalence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in the US: the 2016 health and retirement study harmonized cognitive assessment protocol project. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Dec 1;79(12):1242-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
14. Joe E, Ringman JM. Cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer's disease: clinical management and prevention. BMJ. 2019 Dec 6;367:l6217.[Abstract]
15. Weglinski C, Jeans A. Amyloid-beta in Alzheimer's disease - front and centre after all? Neuronal Signal. 2023 Mar;7(1):NS20220086.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Lane CA, Hardy J, Schott JM. Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2018 Jan;25(1):59-70.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Dubois B, Hampel H, Feldman HH, et al. Preclinical Alzheimer's disease: definition, natural history, and diagnostic criteria. Alzheimers Dement. 2016 Mar;12(3):292-323.[Abstract]
18. Dumurgier J, Hanseeuw BJ, Hatling FB, et al. Alzheimer's disease biomarkers and future decline in cognitive normal older adults. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;60(4):1451-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Jack CR Jr, Bennett DA, Blennow K, et al. NIA-AA Research Framework: toward a biological definition of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2018 Apr;14(4):535-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
20. Ruan Y, Tang J, Guo X, et al. Dietary fat intake and risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2018;15(9):869-76.[Abstract]
21. Livingston G, Huntley J, Liu KY, et al. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2024 report of the Lancet standing commission. Lancet. 2024 Aug 10;404(10452):572-628.[Abstract]
22. Sabia S, Fayosse A, Dumurgier J, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: 23 year follow-up of Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ. 2018 Aug 1;362:k2927.[Abstract][Full Text]
23. Raichlen DA, Aslan DH, Sayre MK, et al. Sedentary behavior and incident dementia among older adults. JAMA. 2023 Sep 12;330(10):934-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
24. Iso-Markku P, Aaltonen S, Kujala UM, et al. Physical activity and cognitive decline among older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2024 Feb 5;7(2):e2354285.[Abstract][Full Text]
25. Anatürk M, Patel R, Ebmeier KP, et al. Development and validation of a dementia risk score in the UK Biobank and Whitehall II cohorts. BMJ Ment Health. 2023 Jul;26(1):e300719.[Abstract][Full Text]
26. Barnes DE, Byers AL, Gardner RC, et al. Association of mild traumatic brain injury with and without loss of consciousness with dementia in US military veterans. JAMA Neurol. 2018 Sep 1;75(9):1055-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Loughrey DG, Kelly ME, Kelley GA, et al. Association of age-related hearing loss with cognitive function, cognitive impairment, and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2018 Feb 1;144(2):115-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Cantuaria ML, Pedersen ER, Waldorff FB, et al. Hearing loss, hearing aid use, and risk of dementia in older adults. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2024 Feb 1;150(2):157-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
29. Anstey KJ, Ashby-Mitchell K, Peters R. Updating the evidence on the association between serum cholesterol and risk of late-life dementia: review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;56(1):215-28.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Zuin M, Cervellati C, Brombo G, et al. Elevated blood homocysteine and risk of alzheimer's dementia: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis based on prospective studies. J Prev Alzheimers Dis. 2021;8(3):329-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
31. Taipale H, Gomm W, Broich K, et al. Use of antiepileptic drugs and dementia risk: an analysis of Finnish health register and German health insurance data. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2018 Jul;66(6):1123-9.[Abstract]
32. Hu X, Zhang J, Qiu Y, et al. Periodontal disease and the risk of alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychogeriatrics. 2021 Sep;21(5):813-25.[Abstract]
33. Asher S, Stephen R, Mäntylä P, et al. Periodontal health, cognitive decline, and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2022 Sep;70(9):2695-709.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Burton MJ, Ramke J, Marques AP, et al. The lancet global health commission on global eye health: vision beyond 2020. Lancet Glob Health. 2021 Apr;9(4):e489-551.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Killeen OJ, Zhou Y, Ehrlich JR. Objectively measured visual impairment and dementia prevalence in older adults in the US. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2023 Aug 1;141(8):786-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
36. Zheng YB, Shi L, Zhu XM, et al. Anticholinergic drugs and the risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Aug;127:296-306.[Abstract]
37. Taylor-Rowan M, Edwards S, Noel-Storr AH, et al. Anticholinergic burden (prognostic factor) for prediction of dementia or cognitive decline in older adults with no known cognitive syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 May 5;5(5):CD013540.[Abstract][Full Text]
38. Jayadevappa R, Chhatre S, Malkowicz SB, et al. Association between androgen deprivation therapy use and diagnosis of dementia in men with prostate cancer. JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Jul 3;2(7):e196562.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Nunomura A, Perry G, Aliev G, et al. Oxidative damage is the earliest event in Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2001 Aug;60(8):759-67.[Abstract]
40. de la Torre JC, Stefano GB. Evidence that Alzheimer's disease is a microvascular disorder: the role of constitutive nitric oxide. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2000 Dec;34(3):119-36.[Abstract]
41. Streit WJ. Microglia and Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. J Neurosci Res. 2004 Jul 1;77(1):1-8.[Abstract]
42. Scheltens P, De Strooper B, Kivipelto M, et al. Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. 2021 Apr 24;397(10284):1577-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Bachman DL, Wolf PA, Linn RT, et al. Incidence of dementia and probable Alzheimer's disease in a general population: the Framingham Study. Neurology. 1993 Mar;43(3 Pt 1):515-9.[Abstract]
44. Lautenschlager NT, Cupples LA, Rao VS, et al. Risk of dementia among relatives of Alzheimer's disease patients in the MIRAGE study: what is in store for the oldest old? Neurology. 1996 Mar;46(3):641-50.[Abstract]
45. Silverman JM, Raiford K, Edland S, et al. The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part VI. Family history assessment: a multicenter study of first-degree relatives of Alzheimer's disease probands and nondemented spouse controls. Neurology. 1994 Jul;44(7):1253-9.[Abstract]
46. Bellenguez C, Küçükali F, Jansen IE, et al. New insights into the genetic etiology of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias. Nat Genet. 2022 Apr;54(4):412-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
47. Yamazaki Y, Painter MM, Bu G, et al. Apolipoprotein E as a therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease: a review of basic research and clinical evidence. CNS Drugs. 2016 Sep;30(9):773-89.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Serrano-Pozo A, Das S, Hyman BT. APOE and alzheimer's disease: advances in genetics, pathophysiology, and therapeutic approaches. Lancet Neurol. 2021 Jan;20(1):68-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Stocker H, Möllers T, Perna L, et al. The genetic risk of Alzheimer's disease beyond APOE ε4: systematic review of Alzheimer's genetic risk scores. Transl Psychiatry. 2018 Aug 24;8(1):166.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Cipriani G, Danti S, Carlesi C, et al. Aging with Down syndrome: the dual diagnosis: Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2018 Jun;33(4):253-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. El Husseini N, Katzan IL, Rost NS, et al. Cognitive impairment after ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2023 Jun;54(6):e272-91.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Papanastasiou CA, Theochari CA, Zareifopoulos N, et al. Atrial fibrillation is associated with cognitive impairment, all-cause dementia, vascular dementia, and alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Gen Intern Med. 2021 Oct;36(10):3122-35.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Doney ASF, Bonney W, Jefferson E, et al. Investigating the relationship between type 2 diabetes and dementia using electronic medical records in the GoDARTS bioresource. Diabetes Care. 2019 Oct;42(10):1973-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Gottesman RF, Albert MS, Alonso A, et al. Associations between midlife vascular risk factors and 25-year incident dementia in the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) cohort. JAMA Neurol. 2017 Oct 1;74(10):1246-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Gong Y, Zhang X, Zhao X, et al. Global ambient particulate matter pollution and neurodegenerative disorders: a systematic review of literature and meta-analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2023 Mar;30(14):39418-30.[Abstract]
56. Zhang B, Weuve J, Langa KM, et al. Comparison of particulate air pollution from different emission sources and incident dementia in the US. JAMA Intern Med. 2023 Oct 1;183(10):1080-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
57. Savolainen-Peltonen H, Rahkola-Soisalo P, Hoti F, et al. Use of postmenopausal hormone therapy and risk of Alzheimer's disease in Finland: nationwide case-control study. BMJ. 2019 Mar 6;364:l665.[Abstract][Full Text]
58. Cardinali CAEF, Martins YA, Torrão AS. Use of hormone therapy in postmenopausal women with alzheimer's disease: a systematic review. Drugs Aging. 2021 Sep;38(9):769-91.[Abstract]
59. Pourhadi N, Mørch LS, Holm EA, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and dementia: nationwide, nested case-control study. BMJ. 2023 Jun 28;381:e072770.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Larsson SC, Traylor M, Malik R; CoSTREAM Consortium, on behalf of the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project. Modifiable pathways in Alzheimer's disease: Mendelian randomisation analysis. BMJ. 2017 Dec 6;359:j5375.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. Bothongo PLK, Jitlal M, Parry E, et al. Dementia risk in a diverse population: a single-region nested case-control study in the East End of London. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2022 Apr;15:100321.[Abstract][Full Text]
62. Cherbuin N, Kim S, Anstey KJ. Dementia risk estimates associated with measures of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2015 Dec 21;5(12):e008853.[Abstract][Full Text]
63. Kuring JK, Mathias JL, Ward L. Risk of dementia in persons who have previously experienced clinically-significant depression, anxiety, or PTSD: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2020 Sep 1;274:247-61.[Abstract]
64. Wu D, Wang C, Pang P, et al. The association between herpes simplex virus type 1 infection and Alzheimer's disease. J Clin Neurosci. 2020 Dec;82(pt a):63-70.[Abstract]
65. Liu Y, Zhong X, Shen J, et al. Elevated serum TC and LDL-C levels in alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis study. Brain Res. 2020 Jan 15;1727:146554.[Abstract]
66. Zhu Y, Liu X, Zhu R, et al. Lipid levels and the risk of dementia: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2022 Mar;9(3):296-311.[Abstract]
67. Zhou F, Chen S. Hyperhomocysteinemia and risk of incident cognitive outcomes: an updated dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Ageing Res Rev. 2019 May;51:55-66.[Abstract]
68. Seshadri S. Elevated plasma homocysteine levels: risk factor or risk marker for the development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease? J Alzheimers Dis. 2006 Aug;9(4):393-8.[Abstract]
69. Lee JJ, Choi GJ, Kang H, et al. Relationship between surgery under general anesthesia and the development of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int. 2020;2020:3234013.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. Baxter MG, Mincer JS, Brallier JW, et al. Cognitive recovery by decade in healthy 40- to 80-year-old volunteers after anesthesia without surgery. Anesth Analg. 2022 Feb 1;134(2):389-99.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dementia, disability and frailty in later life - mid-life approaches to delay or prevent onset. Oct 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
72. Omura JD, McGuire LC, Patel R, et al. Modifiable risk factors for alzheimer disease and related dementias among adults aged ≥45 years - United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 May 20;71(20):680-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
73. World Health Organization. Risk reduction of cognitive decline and dementia. 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
74. Lourida I, Hannon E, Littlejohns TJ, et al. Association of lifestyle and genetic risk with incidence of dementia. JAMA. 2019 Jul 14;322(5):430-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
75. Yu JT, Xu W, Tan CC, et al. Evidence-based prevention of Alzheimer's disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of 243 observational prospective studies and 153 randomised controlled trials. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020 Nov;91(11):1201-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Iso-Markku P, Kujala UM, Knittle K, et al. Physical activity as a protective factor for dementia and alzheimer's disease: systematic review, meta-analysis and quality assessment of cohort and case-control studies. Br J Sports Med. 2022 Jun;56(12):701-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Del Pozo Cruz B, Ahmadi M, Naismith SL, et al. Association of daily step count and intensity with incident dementia in 78 430 adults living in the UK. JAMA Neurol. 2022 Oct 1;79(10):1059-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Brasure M, Desai P, Davila H, et al. Physical activity interventions in preventing cognitive decline and Alzheimer-type dementia: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Jan 2;168(1):30-8.[Abstract]
79. Kivimäki M, Singh-Manoux A, Pentti J, et al. Physical inactivity, cardiometabolic disease, and risk of dementia: an individual-participant meta-analysis. BMJ. 2019 Apr 17;365:l1495.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Xu W, Wang HF, Wan Y, et al. Leisure time physical activity and dementia risk: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ Open. 2017 Oct 22;7(10):e014706.[Abstract][Full Text]
81. Pase MP, Beiser A, Enserro D, et al. Association of ideal cardiovascular health with vascular brain injury and incident dementia. Stroke. 2016 May;47(5):1201-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Sabia S, Fayosse A, Dumurgier J, et al. Association of ideal cardiovascular health at age 50 with incidence of dementia: 25 year follow-up of Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ. 2019 Aug 7;366:l4414.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Larsson SC, Markus HS. Does treating vascular risk factors prevent dementia and Alzheimer's disease? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;64(2):657-68.[Abstract]
84. Peters R, Xu Y, Fitzgerald O, et al. Blood pressure lowering and prevention of dementia: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2022 Dec 21;43(48):4980-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Chu CS, Tseng PT, Stubbs B, et al. Use of statins and the risk of dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2018 Apr 11;8(1):5804.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Smith AD, Refsum H, Bottiglieri T, et al. Homocysteine and dementia: an international consensus statement. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;62(2):561-70.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Fink HA, Jutkowitz E, McCarten JR, et al. Pharmacologic interventions to prevent cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, and clinical Alzheimer-type dementia: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Jan 2;168(1):39-51.[Abstract]
88. Jordan F, Quinn TJ, McGuinness B, et al. Aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the prevention of dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Apr 30;(4):CD011459.[Abstract][Full Text]
89. Butler M, Nelson VA, Davila H, et al. Over-the-counter supplement interventions to prevent cognitive decline, mild cognitive impairment, and clinical Alzheimer-type dementia: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Jan 2;168(1):52-62.[Abstract]
90. Butler M, McCreedy E, Nelson VA, et al. Does cognitive training prevent cognitive decline? A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Jan 2;168(1):63-8.[Abstract]
91. Doody RS, Stevens JC, Beck C, et al; American Academy of Neurology. Practice parameter: management of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2001 May 8;56(9):1154-66.[Abstract][Full Text]
92. Knopman DS, DeKosky ST, Cummings JL, et al. Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2001 May 8;56(9):1143-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Canevelli M, Valletta M, Trebbastoni A, et al. Sundowning in dementia: clinical relevance, pathophysiological determinants, and therapeutic approaches. Front Med (Lausanne). 2016 Dec 27;3:73.[Abstract][Full Text]
94. Deardorff WJ, Grossberg GT. Behavioral and psychological symptoms in alzheimer's dementia and vascular dementia. Handb Clin Neurol. 2019;165:5-32.[Abstract]
95. Tsoi KK, Chan JY, Hirai HW, et al. Cognitive tests to detect dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2015 Sep;175(9):1450-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Arevalo-Rodriguez I, Smailagic N, Roqué-Figuls M, et al. Mini-mental state examination (MMSE) for the early detection of dementia in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jul 27;7(7):CD010783.[Abstract][Full Text]
97. Chan CC, Fage BA, Burton JK, et al. Mini-Cog for the detection of dementia within a secondary care setting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jul 14;7(7):CD011414.[Abstract][Full Text]
98. Fage BA, Chan CC, Gill SS, et al. Mini-Cog for the detection of dementia within a community setting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jul 14;7(7):CD010860.[Abstract][Full Text]
99. Seitz DP, Chan CC, Newton HT, et al. Mini-Cog for the detection of dementia within a primary care setting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jul 14;7(7):CD011415.[Abstract][Full Text]
100. Julayanont P, Brousseau M, Chertkow H, et al. Montreal Cognitive Assessment Memory Index Score (MoCA-MIS) as a predictor of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014 Apr;62(4):679-84.[Abstract]
101. Yesavage JA, Brink TL, Rose TL, et al. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: a preliminary report. J Psychiatr Res. 1982-1983;17(1):37-49.[Abstract]
102. Beishon LC, Elliott E, Hietamies TM, et al. Diagnostic test accuracy of remote, multidomain cognitive assessment (telephone and video call) for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Apr 8;4(4):CD013724.[Abstract][Full Text]
103. Naeem F, McCleery J, Hietamies TM, et al. Diagnostic test accuracy of self-administered cognitive assessment tools for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024 Dec 19;12(12):CD013725.[Abstract][Full Text]
104. Filippi M, Agosta F, Barkhof F, et al; European Federation of the Neurologic Societies. EFNS task force: the use of neuroimaging in the diagnosis of dementia. Eur J Neurol. 2012 Dec;19(12):e131-40, 1487-501.[Abstract][Full Text]
105. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: dementia. 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
106. Hort JO, O'Brien JT, Gainotti G, et al. EFNS guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2010 Oct;17(10):1236-48.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, et al. The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011 May;7(3):263-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Alzheimer's Disease International; Rosa-Neto P. World Alzheimer report 2021: journey to a diagnosis of dementia. Chapter 9. Brain imaging using CT and MRI. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
109. Martínez G, Vernooij RW, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with florbetaben for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 22;(11):CD012883.[Abstract][Full Text]
110. Martínez G, Vernooij RW, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with florbetapir for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 22;(11):CD012216.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. Martínez G, Vernooij RW, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with flutemetamol for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 22;(11):CD012884.[Abstract][Full Text]
112. Chételat G, Arbizu J, Barthel H, et al. Amyloid-PET and (18)F-FDG-PET in the diagnostic investigation of alzheimer's disease and other dementias. Lancet Neurol. 2020 Nov;19(11):951-962.[Abstract]
113. Raji CA, Torosyan N, Silverman DHS. Optimizing use of neuroimaging tools in evaluation of prodromal alzheimer's disease and related disorders. J Alzheimers Dis. 2020;77(3):935-47.[Abstract]
114. American College of Radiology. ACR-ACNM-ASNR-SNMMI practice parameter for brain PET-CT imaging in dementia. 2020 [internet publication].[Full Text]
115. Suppiah S, Didier MA, Vinjamuri S. The who, when, why, and how of PET amyloid imaging in management of Alzheimer's disease-review of literature and interesting images. Diagnostics (Basel). 2019 Jun 25;9(2):65.[Abstract][Full Text]
116. Tian M, Zuo C, Civelek AC, et al. International nuclear medicine consensus on the clinical use of amyloid positron emission tomography in alzheimer's disease. Phenomics. 2023 Aug;3(4):375-89.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. Weintraub S. Neuropsychological assessment in dementia diagnosis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2022 Jun 1;28(3):781-99.[Abstract][Full Text]
118. Burgunder JM, Finsterer J, Szolnoki Z, et al. EFNS guidelines on the molecular diagnosis of channelopathies, epilepsies, migraine, stroke, and dementias. Eur J Neurol. 2010 May;17(5):641-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
119. Algeciras-Schimnich A, Bornhorst JA. Importance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection protocol for the accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease when using CSF biomarkers. Alzheimers Dement. 2024 May;20(5):3657-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
120. Mielke MM, Fowler NR. Alzheimer disease blood biomarkers: considerations for population-level use. Nat Rev Neurol. 2024 Aug;20(8):495-504.[Abstract]
121. Hansson O, Batrla R, Brix B, et al. The Alzheimer's association international guidelines for handling of cerebrospinal fluid for routine clinical measurements of amyloid beta and tau. Alzheimers Dement. 2021 Sep;17(9):1575-82.[Abstract][Full Text]
122. Ritchie C, Smailagic N, Noel-Storr AH, et al. CSF tau and the CSF tau/ABeta ratio for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Mar 22;(3):CD010803.[Abstract][Full Text]
123. Nguyen TT, Ta QTH, Nguyen TKO, et al. Role of Body-Fluid Biomarkers in Alzheimer's Disease Diagnosis. Diagnostics (Basel). 2020 May 20;10(5):326.[Abstract][Full Text]
124. Herukka SK, Simonsen AH, Andreasen N, et al. Recommendations for cerebrospinal fluid Alzheimer's disease biomarkers in the diagnostic evaluation of mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimers Dement. 2017 Mar;13(3):285-95.[Abstract][Full Text]
125. Kokkinou M, Beishon LC, Smailagic N, et al. Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid ABeta42 for the differential diagnosis of alzheimer's disease dementia in participants diagnosed with any dementia subtype in a specialist care setting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Feb 10;2(2):CD010945.[Abstract][Full Text]
126. Rivero-Santana A, Ferreira D, Perestelo-Pérez L, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for the differential diagnosis between Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration: systematic review, HSROC analysis, and confounding factors. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;55(2):625-44.[Abstract]
127. Roveta F, Cermelli A, Boschi S, et al. Synaptic proteins as fluid biomarkers in alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2022;90(4):1381-93.[Abstract]
128. Qu Y, Ma YH, Huang YY, et al. Blood biomarkers for the diagnosis of amnestic mild cognitive impairment and alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021 Sep;128:479-86.[Abstract]
129. Zabala-Findlay A, Penny LK, Lofthouse RA, et al. Utility of blood-based tau biomarkers for mild cognitive impairment and alzheimer's disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Cells. 2023 Apr 18;12(8):1184.[Abstract][Full Text]
130. Tariq SH, Tumosa N, Chibnall JT, et al. Comparison of the Saint Louis University mental status examination and the Mini-Mental State Examination for detecting dementia and mild neurocognitive disorder - a pilot study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006 Nov;14(11):900-10.[Abstract]
131. Scheltens P, Fox N, Barkhof F, et al. Structural magnetic resonance imaging in the practical assessment of dementia: beyond exclusion. Lancet Neurol. 2002 May;1(1):13-21.[Abstract]
132. Chetelat G, Baron JC. Early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: contribution of structural neuroimaging. Neuroimage. 2003 Feb;18(2):525-41.[Abstract]
133. Rabinovici GD, Gatsonis C, Apgar C, et al. Association of amyloid positron emission tomography with subsequent change in clinical management among Medicare beneficiaries with mild cognitive impairment or dementia. JAMA. 2019 Apr 2;321(13):1286-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
134. Ossenkoppele R, Jansen WJ, Rabinovici GD, et al. Prevalence of amyloid PET positivity in dementia syndromes: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015 May 19;313(19):1939-49.[Abstract][Full Text]
135. Stone J, Burton C, Carson A. Recognising and explaining functional neurological disorder. BMJ. 2020 Oct 21;371:m3745.[Abstract]
136. Brown RJ, Reuber M. Psychological and psychiatric aspects of psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES): a systematic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016 Apr;45:157-82.[Abstract]
137. Binder LM, Campbell KA. Medically unexplained symptoms and neuropsychological assessment. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2004 May;26(3):369-92.[Abstract]
138. Jack CR Jr, Andrews JS, Beach TG, et al. Revised criteria for diagnosis and staging of Alzheimer's disease: Alzheimer's Association Workgroup. Alzheimers Dement. 2024 Aug;20(8):5143-69.[Abstract][Full Text]
139. Montine TJ, Phelps CH, Beach TG, et al; National Institute on Aging; Alzheimer's Association. National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease: a practical approach. Acta Neuropathol. 2012 Jan;123(1):1-11.[Abstract][Full Text]
140. Patnode CD, Perdue LA, Rossom RC, et al. Screening for cognitive impairment in older adults: updated evidence report and systematic seview for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2020 Feb 25;323(8):764-85.[Abstract][Full Text]
141. Miller DK, Morley JE, Rubenstein LZ, et al. Formal geriatric assessment instruments and the care of older general medical outpatients. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990 Jun;38(6):645-51.[Abstract]
142. Foster NL, Bondi MW, Das R, et al. Quality improvement in neurology: mild cognitive impairment quality measurement set. Neurology. 2019 Oct 15;93(16):705-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
143. Davis DH, Creavin ST, Yip JL, et al. Montreal cognitive assessment for the detection of dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Jul 13;7(7):CD010775.[Abstract][Full Text]
144. Pinto TCC, Machado L, Bulgacov TM, et al. Is the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) screening superior to the mini-mental state examination (MMSE) in the detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) in the elderly? Int Psychogeriatr. 2019 Apr;31(4):491-504.[Abstract][Full Text]
145. Wang X, Li F, Zhu H, et al. A hierarchical bayesian latent class model for the diagnostic performance of mini-mental state examination and Montreal cognitive assessment in screening mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer's disease. J Prev Alzheimers Dis. 2022;9(4):589-600.[Abstract][Full Text]
146. Dawes P, Reeves D, Yeung WK, et al. Development and validation of the Montreal cognitive assessment for people with hearing impairment (MoCA-H). J Am Geriatr Soc. 2023 May;71(5):1485-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
147. Lim S, Chong S, Min D, et al. Alzheimer's disease screening tools for Asian Americans: a scoping review. J Appl Gerontol. 2021 Oct;40(10):1389-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
148. Ortega LFV, Aprahamian I, Borges MK, et al. Screening for Alzheimer's disease in low-educated or illiterate older adults in Brazil: a systematic review. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2019 May 13;77(4):279-88.[Abstract][Full Text]
149. Arévalo SP, Kress J, Rodriguez FS. Validity of cognitive assessment tools for older adult Hispanics: a systematic review. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2020 Apr;68(4):882-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
150. Frisoni GB, Festari C, Massa F, et al. European intersocietal recommendations for the biomarker-based diagnosis of neurocognitive disorders. Lancet Neurol. 2024 Mar;23(3):302-12.[Abstract]
151. O'Brien JT, Holmes C, Jones M, et al. Clinical practice with anti-dementia drugs: a revised (third) consensus statement from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol. 2017 Feb;31(2):147-68.[Abstract][Full Text]
152. Fazio S, Pace D, Maslow K, et al. Alzheimer's Association dementia care practice recommendations. Gerontologist. 2018 Jan 18;58(Suppl 1):S1-9.[Abstract]
153. Costanzo MC, Arcidiacono C, Rodolico A, et al. Diagnostic and interventional implications of telemedicine in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a literature review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020 Jan;35(1):12-28.[Abstract]
154. Chiong W, Tsou AY, Simmons Z, et al. Ethical considerations in dementia diagnosis and care: AAN position statement. Neurology. 2021 Jul 13;97(2):80-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
155. Chien LY, Chu H, Guo JL, et al. Caregiver support groups in patients with dementia: a meta-analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011 Oct;26(10):1089-98.[Abstract]
156. Taylor LP, Besbris JM, Graf WD, et al. Clinical guidance in neuropalliative care: an AAN position statement. Neurology. 2022 Mar 8;98(10):409-16.[Full Text]
157. Walsh SC, Murphy E, Devane D, et al. Palliative care interventions in advanced dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Sep 28;9:CD011513.[Abstract][Full Text]
158. Graff MJ, Vernooij-Dassen MJ, Thijssen M, et al. Effects of community occupational therapy on quality of life, mood, and health status in dementia patients and their caregivers: a randomized controlled trial. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007 Sep;62(9):1002-9.[Abstract]
159. Graff MJ, Adang EM, Vernooij-Dassen MJ, et al. Community occupational therapy for older patients with dementia and their care givers: cost effectiveness study. BMJ. 2008 Jan 19;336(7636):134-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
160. Liang Y, Wang L. Alzheimer's disease is an important risk factor of fractures: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Mol Neurobiol. 2017 Jul;54(5):3230-5.[Abstract]
161. Epstein NU, Guo R, Farlow MR, et al. Medication for Alzheimer's disease and associated fall hazard: a retrospective cohort study from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Drugs Aging. 2014 Feb;31(2):125-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
162. Thurman DJ, Stevens JA, Rao JK, et al. Practice parameter: assessing patients in a neurology practice for risk of falls (an evidence-based review): report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2008 Feb 5;70(6):473-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
163. Birks J. Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Jan 25;(1):CD005593.[Abstract][Full Text]
164. Lim AWY, Schneider L, Loy C. Galantamine for dementia due to Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2024 Nov 5;11(11):CD001747.[Abstract][Full Text]
165. McShane R, Westby MJ, Roberts E, et al. Memantine for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Mar 20;(3):CD003154.[Abstract][Full Text]
166. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine and memantine for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Jun 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
167. Majidazar R, Rezazadeh-Gavgani E, Sadigh-Eteghad S, et al. Pharmacotherapy of alzheimer's disease: an overview of systematic reviews. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2022 Oct;78(10):1567-87.[Abstract]
168. Renn BN, Asghar-Ali AA, Thielke S, et al. A systematic review of practice guidelines and recommendations for discontinuation of cholinesterase inhibitors in dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2018 Feb;26(2):134-47.[Abstract][Full Text]
169. Parsons C, Lim WY, Loy C, et al. Withdrawal or continuation of cholinesterase inhibitors or memantine or both, in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Feb 3;2(2):CD009081.[Abstract][Full Text]
170. Aronson S, Van Baelen B, Kavanagh S, et al. Optimal dosing of galantamine in patients with mild or moderate Alzheimer's disease: post hoc analysis of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(3):231-9.[Abstract]
171. Blesa R, Toriyama K, Ueda K, et al. Strategies for continued successful treatment in patients with alzheimer's disease: an overview of switching between pharmacological agents. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2018;15(10):964-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
172. Gauthier S, Lopez OL, Waldemar G, et al. Effects of donepezil on activities of daily living: integrated analysis of patient data from studies in mild, moderate and severe Alzheimer's disease. Int Psychogeriatr. 2010 Sep;22(6):973-83.[Abstract]
173. Blesa R, Ballard C, Orgogozo JM, et al. Caregiver preference for rivastigmine patches versus capsules for the treatment of Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2007 Jul 24;69(4 Suppl 1):S23-8.[Abstract]
174. Birks JS, Chong LY, Grimley Evans J. Rivastigmine for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Sep 22;(9):CD001191.[Abstract][Full Text]
175. Sadowsky CH, Dengiz A, Olin JT, et al. Switching from donepezil tablets to rivastigmine transdermal patch in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2009 Jun-Jul;24(3):267-75.[Abstract]
176. Mueller C, Perera G, Hayes RD, et al. Associations of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor treatment with reduced mortality in Alzheimer's disease: a retrospective survival analysis. Age Ageing. 2018 Jan 1;47(1):88-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
177. Vaci N, Koychev I, Kim CH, et al. Real-world effectiveness, its predictors and onset of action of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in dementia: retrospective health record study. Br J Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 27;1-7.[Abstract]
178. Birks JS, Harvey RJ. Donepezil for dementia due to Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jun 18;(6):CD001190.[Abstract][Full Text]
179. Farlow MR, Salloway S, Tariot PN, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of high-dose (23 mg/d) versus standard-dose (10 mg/d) donepezil in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease: a 24-week, randomized, double-blind study. Clin Ther. 2010 Jul;32(7):1234-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
180. Chen R, Chan PT, Chu H, et al. Treatment effects between monotherapy of donepezil versus combination with memantine for Alzheimer disease: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2017 Aug 21;12(8):e0183586.[Abstract][Full Text]
181. Liang JH, Xu Y, Lin L, et al. Comparison of multiple interventions for older adults with Alzheimer disease or mild cognitive impairment: a PRISMA-compliant network meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2018 May;97(20):e10744.[Abstract][Full Text]
182. Panza GA, Taylor BA, MacDonald HV, et al. Can exercise improve cognitive symptoms of Alzheimer's disease? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2018 Mar;66(3):487-95.[Abstract]
183. Forbes D, Forbes SC, Blake CM, et al. Exercise programs for people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Apr 15;(4):CD006489.[Abstract][Full Text]
184. Woods B, Aguirre E, Spector AE, et al. Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Feb 15;(2):CD005562.[Abstract][Full Text]
185. Kudlicka A, Martyr A, Bahar-Fuchs A, et al. Cognitive rehabilitation for people with mild to moderate dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Jun 29;6(6):CD013388.[Abstract][Full Text]
186. Liang JH, Li JY, Jia RX, et al. Comparison of cognitive intervention strategies for older adults with mild to moderate alzheimer's disease: a bayesian meta-analytic review. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2019 Mar;20(3):347-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
187. Carrion C, Folkvord F, Anastasiadou D, et al. Cognitive therapy for dementia patients: a systematic review. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2018;46(1-2):1-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
188. Bahar-Fuchs A, Martyr A, Goh AM, et al. Cognitive training for people with mild to moderate dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Mar 25;(3):CD013069.[Abstract][Full Text]
189. Oltra-Cucarella J, Ferrer-Cascales R, Clare L, et al. Differential effects of cognition-focused interventions for people with Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychology. 2018 Sep;32(6):664-79.[Abstract]
190. Smallfield S, Heckenlaible C. Effectiveness of occupational therapy interventions to enhance occupational performance for adults with Alzheimer's disease and related major neurocognitive disorders: a systematic review. Am J Occup Ther. 2017 Sep/Oct;71(5):7105180010p1-7105180010p9.[Abstract]
191. Egan MB, Bérubé D, Racine G, et al. Methods to enhance verbal communication between individuals with Alzheimer's disease and their formal and informal caregivers: a systematic review. Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2010 Jun 3;2010.[Abstract][Full Text]
192. Bleibel M, El Cheikh A, Sadier NS, et al. The effect of music therapy on cognitive functions in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2023 Mar 27;15(1):65.[Abstract][Full Text]
193. van der Steen JT, van der Wouden JC, Methley AM, et al. Music-based therapeutic interventions for people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025 Mar 7;3(3):CD003477.[Abstract][Full Text]
194. Woods B, O'Philbin L, Farrell EM, et al. Reminiscence therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Mar 1;(3):CD001120.[Abstract][Full Text]
195. Duan Y, Lu L, Chen J, et al. Psychosocial interventions for Alzheimer's disease cognitive symptoms: a Bayesian network meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr. 2018 Aug 7;18(1):175.[Abstract][Full Text]
196. Neal M, Briggs M, et al. Validation therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(3):CD001394.[Abstract][Full Text]
197. Campbell KM, Coleman CK, Williams K. Responses of persons living with dementia to caregiver validating communication: a secondary analysis. Res Theory Nurs Pract. 2024 Feb 13;38(1):28-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
198. Erdmann A, Schnepp W. Conditions, components and outcomes of integrative validation therapy in a long-term care facility for people with dementia: a qualitative evaluation study. Dementia (London). 2016 Sep;15(5):1184-204.[Abstract]
199. Jaturapatporn D, Isaac MG, McCleery J, et al. Aspirin, steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Feb 15;(2):CD006378.[Abstract][Full Text]
200. Farina N, Llewellyn D, Isaac MGEKN, et al. Vitamin E for Alzheimer's dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 18;(4):CD002854.[Abstract][Full Text]
201. McCleery J, Abraham RP, Denton DA, et al. Vitamin and mineral supplementation for preventing dementia or delaying cognitive decline in people with mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Nov 1;(11):CD011905.[Abstract][Full Text]
202. Birks J, Grimley Evans J. Ginkgo biloba for cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Jan 21;(1):CD003120.[Abstract][Full Text]
203. Thancharoen O, Limwattananon C, Waleekhachonloet O, et al. Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb761), cholinesterase inhibitors, and memantine for the treatment of mild-to-moderate alzheimer's disease: a network meta-analysis. Drugs Aging. 2019 May;36(5):435-52.[Abstract]
204. Liao Z, Cheng L, Li X, et al. Meta-analysis of ginkgo biloba preparation for the treatment of alzheimer's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2020 Jul/Aug;43(4):93-9.[Abstract]
205. Peters ME, Schwartz S, Han D, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms as predictors of progression to severe Alzheimer's dementia and death: the Cache County Dementia Progression Study. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 May;172(5):460-5.[Abstract]
206. Russ TC, Parra MA, Lim AE, et al. Prediction of general hospital admission in people with dementia: cohort study. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Feb;206(2):153-9.[Abstract]
207. Zhao QF, Tan L, Wang HF, et al. The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2016 Jan 15;190:264-71.[Abstract]
208. Mühlbauer V, Möhler R, Dichter MN, et al. Antipsychotics for agitation and psychosis in people with Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Dec 17;12(12):CD013304.[Abstract][Full Text]
209. Leung DKY, Chan WC, Spector A, et al. Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and apathy symptoms across dementia stages: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2021 Sep;36(9):1330-44.[Abstract]
210. Maresova P, Tomsone S, Lameski P, et al. Technological solutions for older people with Alzheimer's disease: review. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2018;15(10):975-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
211. Aini N, Chen R, Chu H, et al. The effects of light therapy on sleep, depression, neuropsychiatric behaviors, and cognition among people living with dementia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2024 Jun;32(6):681-706.[Abstract]
212. Wilfling D, Calo S, Dichter MN, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for sleep disturbances in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Jan 3;1(1):CD011881.[Abstract][Full Text]
213. Benca R, Herring WJ, Khandker R, et al. Burden of insomnia and sleep disturbances and the impact of sleep treatments in patients with probable or possible alzheimer's disease: a structured literature review. J Alzheimers Dis. 2022;86(1):83-109.[Abstract][Full Text]
214. Zang L, Liu X, Li Y, et al. The effect of light therapy on sleep disorders and psychobehavioral symptoms in patients with Alzheimer's disease: A meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2023;18(12):e0293977.[Abstract][Full Text]
215. Mittelman MS, Haley WE, Clay OJ, et al. Improving caregiver well-being delays nursing home placement of patients with Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2006 Nov 14;67(9):1592-9.[Abstract]
216. Lins S, Hayder-Beichel D, Rücker G, et al. Efficacy and experiences of telephone counselling for informal carers of people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Sep 1;(9):CD009126.[Abstract][Full Text]
217. Konno R, Kang HS, Makimoto K. A best-evidence review of intervention studies for minimizing resistance-to-care behaviours for older adults with dementia in nursing homes. J Adv Nurs. 2014 Oct;70(10):2167-80.[Abstract][Full Text]
218. Orgeta V, Leung P, Del-Pino-Casado R, et al. Psychological treatments for depression and anxiety in dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2022 Apr 25;4(4):CD009125.[Abstract][Full Text]
219. Bell G, Baou CE, Saunders R, et al. Effectiveness of primary care psychological therapy services for the treatment of depression and anxiety in people living with dementia: evidence from national healthcare records in England. EClinicalMedicine. 2022 Oct;52:101692.[Abstract][Full Text]
220. Watt JA, Goodarzi Z, Veroniki AA, et al. Comparative efficacy of interventions for reducing symptoms of depression in people with dementia: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ. 2021 Mar 24;372:n532.[Abstract][Full Text]
221. Brasure M, Jutkowitz E, Fuchs E, et al. Nonpharmacologic interventions for agitation and aggression in dementia: comparative effectiveness reviews, no. 177. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2016.[Abstract][Full Text]
222. Watt JA, Goodarzi Z, Veroniki AA, et al. Comparative efficacy of interventions for aggressive and agitated behaviors in dementia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2019 Nov 5;171(9):633-42.[Abstract]
223. Leng M, Zhao Y, Wang Z. Comparative efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions on agitation in people with dementia: a systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. 2020 Feb;102:103489.[Abstract]
224. Möhler R, Calo S, Renom A, et al. Personally tailored activities for improving psychosocial outcomes for people with dementia in long-term care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023 Mar 13;3(3):CD009812.[Abstract][Full Text]
225. Cummings J, Lanctot K, Grossberg G, et al. Progress in pharmacologic management of neuropsychiatric syndromes in neurodegenerative disorders: a review. JAMA Neurol. 2024 Jun 1;81(6):645-53.[Abstract]
226. Cummings J, Sano M, Auer S, et al. Reduction and prevention of agitation in persons with neurocognitive disorders: an international psychogeriatric association consensus algorithm. Int Psychogeriatr. 2024 Apr;36(4):251-62.[Abstract][Full Text]
227. Rodda J, Morgan S, Walker Z. Are cholinesterase inhibitors effective in the management of the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia in Alzheimer's disease? A systematic review of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of donepezil, rivastigmine and galantamine. Int Psychogeriatr. 2009 Oct;21(5):813-24.[Abstract]
228. d'Angremont E, Begemann MJH, van Laar T, et al. Cholinesterase inhibitors for treatment of psychotic symptoms in alzheimer disease and parkinson disease: a meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2023 Aug 1;80(8):813-23.[Abstract][Full Text]
229. Bago Rožanković P, Rožanković M, Badžak J, et al. Impact of donepezil and memantine on behavioral and psychological symptoms of alzheimer disease: six-month open-label study. Cogn Behav Neurol. 2021 Dec 2;34(4):288-94.[Abstract]
230. Magierski R, Sobow T, Schwertner E, et al. Pharmacotherapy of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia: state of the art and future progress. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Jul 31;11:1168.[Abstract][Full Text]
231. Dudas R, Malouf R, McCleery J, et al. Antidepressants for treating depression in dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 31;(8):CD003944.[Abstract][Full Text]
232. Sepehry AA, Lee PE, Hsiung GY, et al. Effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in Alzheimer's disease with comorbid depression: a meta-analysis of depression and cognitive outcomes. Drugs Aging. 2012 Oct;29(10):793-806.[Abstract]
233. An H, Choi B, Park KW, et al. The effect of escitalopram on mood and cognition in depressive alzheimer's disease subjects. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;55(2):727-35.[Abstract]
234. Zhang J, Zheng X, Zhao Z. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy outcomes of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in depression in Alzheimer's disease. BMC Neurol. 2023 May 31;23(1):210.[Abstract][Full Text]
235. He Y, Li H, Huang J, et al. Efficacy of antidepressant drugs in the treatment of depression in Alzheimer disease patients: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol. 2021 Aug;35(8):901-9.[Abstract]
236. McCleery J, Sharpley AL. Pharmacotherapies for sleep disturbances in dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Nov 15;(11):CD009178.[Abstract][Full Text]
237. Javed B, Javed A, Kow CS, et al. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options for sleep disturbances in Alzheimer's disease. Expert Rev Neurother. 2023 Jun;23(6):501-14.[Abstract][Full Text]
238. Seitz DP, Adunuri N, Gill SS, et al. Antidepressants for agitation and psychosis in dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Feb 16;(2):CD008191.[Abstract][Full Text]
239. Porsteinsson AP, Drye LT, Pollock BG, et al; CitAD Research Group. Effect of citalopram on agitation in Alzheimer disease: the CitAD randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014 Feb 19;311(7):682-91.[Abstract][Full Text]
240. Leonpacher AK, Peters ME, Drye LT, et al; CitAD Research Group. Effects of citalopram on neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's dementia: evidence from the CitAD study. Am J Psychiatry. 2016 May 1;173(5):473-80.[Abstract]
241. Schneider LS, Frangakis C, Drye LT, et al; CitAD Research Group. Heterogeneity of treatment response to citalopram for patients with Alzheimer's disease with aggression or agitation: the CitAD randomized clinical trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2016 May 1;173(5):465-72.[Abstract]
242. Tariot PN, Erb R, Podgorski CA, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of carbamazepine for agitation and aggression in dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Jan;155(1):54-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
243. Watt JA, Gomes T, Bronskill SE, et al. Comparative risk of harm associated with trazodone or atypical antipsychotic use in older adults with dementia: a retrospective cohort study. CMAJ. 2018 Nov 26;190(47):E1376-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
244. López-Pousa S, Garre-Olmo J, Vilalta-Franch J, et al. Trazodone for Alzheimer's disease: a naturalistic follow-up study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2008 Sep-Oct;5;47(2):207-15.[Abstract]
245. Frederiksen KS, Cooper C, Frisoni GB, et al. A European Academy of Neurology guideline on medical management issues in dementia. Eur J Neurol. 2020 Oct;27(10):1805-20.[Abstract][Full Text]
246. Caraci F, Santagati M, Caruso G, et al. New antipsychotic drugs for the treatment of agitation and psychosis in Alzheimer's disease: focus on brexpiprazole and pimavanserin. F1000Res. 2020 Jul 8:9:F1000 Faculty Rev-686.[Abstract][Full Text]
247. Grossberg GT, Kohegyi E, Mergel V, et al. Efficacy and safety of brexpiprazole for the treatment of agitation in alzheimer's dementia: two 12-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2020 Apr;28(4):383-400.[Abstract][Full Text]
248. Lee D, Slomkowski M, Hefting N, et al. Brexpiprazole for the treatment of agitation in Alzheimer dementia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol. 2023 Dec 1;80(12):1307-16.[Abstract][Full Text]
249. British National Formulary. Advice of Royal College of Psychiatrists on doses of antipsychotic drugs above BNF upper limit [internet publication].[Full Text]
250. Wang J, Yu JT, Wang HF, et al. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015 Jan;86(1):101-9.[Abstract]
251. Huang YY, Teng T, Giovane CD, et al. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia: a network meta-analysis. Age Ageing. 2023 Jun 1;52(6):afad091.[Abstract][Full Text]
252. Zivkovic S, Koh CH, Kaza N, et al. Antipsychotic drug use and risk of stroke and myocardial infarction: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2019 Jun 20;19(1):189.[Abstract][Full Text]
253. Reus VI, Fochtmann LJ, Eyler AE, et al. The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline on the use of antipsychotics to treat agitation or psychosis in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2016 May 1;173(5):543-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
254. Ihl R, Frölich L, Winblad B, et al; WFSBP Task Force on Treatment Guidelines for Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the biological treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;12(1):2-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
255. Davies N, Barrado-Martín Y, Vickerstaff V, et al. Enteral tube feeding for people with severe dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Aug 13;8(8):CD013503.[Abstract][Full Text]
256. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dementia: assessment, management and support for people living with dementia and their carers. Jun 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
257. Vachon M, Veilleux MC, Macoir J. Promoting the maintenance of satisfactory communication: strategies used by caregivers and medical staff with people suffering from Alzheimer's disease. Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil. 2017 Jun 1;15(2):185-95.[Abstract]
258. Small G, Dubois B. A review of compliance to treatment in Alzheimer's disease: potential benefits of a transdermal patch. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007 Nov;23(11):2705-13.[Abstract]
259. Grossberg GS, Sadowsky C, Olin JT. Rivastigmine transdermal system for the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. Int J Clin Practice. 2010 Apr;64(5):651-60.[Abstract]
260. Darreh-Shori T, Jelic V. Safety and tolerability of transdermal and oral rivastigmine in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2010 Jan;9(1):167-76.[Abstract]
261. Atri A, Rountree SD, Lopez OL, et al. Validity, significance, strengths, limitations, and evidentiary value of real-world clinical data for combination therapy in Alzheimer's disease: comparison of efficacy and effectiveness studies. Neurodegener Dis. 2012;10(1-4):170-4.[Abstract]
262. Winblad B, Wimo A, Engedal K, et al. 3- year study of donepezil therapy in Alzheimer's disease: effects of early and continuous therapy. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2006;21(5-6):353-63.[Abstract]
263. Teri L, Gibbons LE, McCurry SM, et al. Exercise plus behavioral management in patients with Alzheimer disease: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003 Oct 15;290(15):2015-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
264. Orgeta V, Qazi A, Spector A, et al. Psychological treatments for depression and anxiety in dementia and mild cognitive impairment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Oct;207(4):293-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
265. Kales HC, Valenstein M, Kim HM, et al. Mortality risk in patients with dementia treated with antipsychotics versus other psychiatric medications. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Oct;164(10):1568-76.[Abstract]
266. Wang PS, Schneeweiss S, Avorn J, et al. Risk of death in elderly users of conventional vs. atypical antipsychotic medications. N Engl J Med. 2005 Dec 1;353(22):2335-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
267. Cheung G, Stapelberg J. Quetiapine for the treatment of behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): a meta-analysis of randomised placebo-controlled trials. N Z Med J. 2011 Jun 10;124(1336):39-50.[Abstract]
268. Schneider-Thoma J, Efthimiou O, Huhn M, et al. Second-generation antipsychotic drugs and short-term mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomised controlled trials. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018 Aug;5(8):653-63.[Abstract]
269. McCurry SM, Gibbons LE, Logsdon RG, et al. Nighttime insomnia treatment and education for Alzheimer's disease: a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005 May;53(5):793-802.[Abstract]
270. Mitolo M, Tonon C, La Morgia C, et al. Effects of light treatment on sleep, cognition, mood, and behavior in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2018;46(5-6):371-84.[Abstract][Full Text]
271. Ayalon L, Gum AM, Feliciano L, et al. Effectiveness of nonpharmacological interventions for the management of neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with dementia: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med. 2006 Nov 13;166(20):2182-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
272. van Dyck CH, Swanson CJ, Aisen P, et al. Lecanemab in early Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med. 2023 Jan 5;388(1):9-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
273. Cummings J, Apostolova L, Rabinovici GD, et al. Lecanemab: appropriate use recommendations. J Prev Alzheimers Dis. 2023;10(3):362-77.[Abstract][Full Text]
274. Hampel H, Elhage A, Cho M, et al. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA): radiological, biological and clinical characteristics. Brain. 2023 Nov 2;146(11):4414-24.[Abstract][Full Text]
275. Honig LS, Sabbagh MN, van Dyck CH, et al. Updated safety results from phase 3 lecanemab study in early Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2024 May 10;16(1):105.[Abstract][Full Text]
276. Reish NJ, Jamshidi P, Stamm B, et al. Multiple cerebral hemorrhages in a patient receiving lecanemab and treated with t-PA for stroke. N Engl J Med. 2023 Feb 2;388(5):478-9.[Abstract]
277. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study of subcutaneous lecanemab in healthy participants. Jan 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
278. ClinicalTrials.gov. AHEAD 3-45 study: a study to evaluate efficacy and safety of treatment with lecanemab in participants with preclinical alzheimer's disease and elevated amyloid and also in participants with early preclinical alzheimer's disease and intermediate amyloid. Jan 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
279. Rashad A, Rasool A, Shaheryar M, et al. Donanemab for alzheimer's disease: a systematic review of clinical trials. Healthcare (Basel). 2022 Dec 22;11(1):32.[Abstract][Full Text]
280. Sims JR, Zimmer JA, Evans CD, et al. Donanemab in early symptomatic alzheimer disease: the TRAILBLAZER-ALZ 2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2023 Aug 8;330(6):512-27.[Abstract][Full Text]
281. Zimmer JA, Ardayfio P, Wang H, et al. Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities with donanemab in early symptomatic alzheimer disease: secondary analysis of the TRAILBLAZER-ALZ and ALZ 2 randomized clinical trials. JAMA Neurol. 2025 Mar 10:e250065.[Abstract][Full Text]
282. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study to assess the effects of ACI-24.060 in Alzheimer's disease and in Down syndrome (ABATE study). Jun 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
283. Brody M, Agronin M, Herskowitz BJ, et al. Results and insights from a phase I clinical trial of lomecel-B for alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2023 Jan;19(1):261-73.[Abstract][Full Text]
284. ClinicalTrials.gov. Lomecel-B effects on Alzheimer's disease (CLEARMIND). Feb 2024 [internet pubication].[Full Text]
285. Zúñiga CH, Acosta BI, Menchaca R, et al. Treatment of alzheimer's disease subjects with expanded non-genetically modified autologous natural killer cells (SNK01): a phase I study. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2025 Feb 12;17(1):40.[Abstract][Full Text]
286. ClinicalTrials.gov. Clinical study of SNK01 in participants with moderate Alzheimer's disease. Jun 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
287. Lee CW, Chen JY, Ko CC, et al. Efficacy of methylphenidate for the treatment of apathy in patients with alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2022 Dec;239(12):3743-53.[Abstract][Full Text]
288. Azhar L, Kusumo RW, Marotta G, et al. Pharmacological management of apathy in dementia. CNS Drugs. 2022 Feb;36(2):143-65.[Abstract]
289. Tseng PT, Chen YW, Zeng BY, et al. The beneficial effect on cognition of noninvasive brain stimulation intervention in patients with dementia: a network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2023 Jan 25;15(1):20.[Abstract][Full Text]
290. Šimko P, Kent JA, Rektorova I. Is non-invasive brain stimulation effective for cognitive enhancement in Alzheimer's disease? An updated meta-analysis. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022 Dec;144:23-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
291. Teselink J, Bawa KK, Koo GK, et al. Efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation on global cognition and neuropsychiatric symptoms in alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Ageing Res Rev. 2021 Dec;72:101499.[Abstract]
292. California Department of Public Health. 2017 guidelines for Alzheimer's disease management. 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
293. Kales HC, Lyketsos CG, Miller EM, et al. Management of behavioral and psychological symptoms in people with Alzheimer's disease: an international Delphi consensus. Int Psychogeriatr. 2019 Jan;31(1):83-90.[Abstract]
294. Schmidt R, Hofer E, Bouwman FH, et al. EFNS-ENS/EAN Guideline on concomitant use of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2015 Jun;22(6):889-98.[Abstract]
295. Isik AT, Erken N, Yavuz I, et al. Orthostatic hypotension in patients with Alzheimer's disease: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Neurol Sci. 2022 Feb;43(2):999-1006.[Abstract]
296. Perry E, Walton K, Lambert K. Prevalence of malnutrition in people with dementia in long-term care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2023 Jun 28;15(13):2927.[Abstract][Full Text]
297. Volkert D, Chourdakis M, Faxen-Irving G, et al. ESPEN guidelines on nutrition in dementia. Clin Nutr. 2015 Dec;34(6):1052-73.[Abstract]
298. Iverson DJ, Gronseth GS, Reger MA, et al. Practice parameter update: evaluation and management of driving risk in dementia: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2010 Apr 20;74(16):1316-24.[Abstract][Full Text]
299. Chiong W, Tolchin BD, Bonnie RJ, et al. Decisions with patients and families regarding aducanumab in Alzheimer disease, with recommendations for consent. AAN Position Statement. Neurology. 2022 Jan 25;98(4):154-9.[Abstract][Full Text]