Highlights & Basics
- Personality disorders are a relatively common, chronic pattern of perceptual and behavioral abnormalities. These manifest as problems in at least two of the following domains: cognitive-perceptual, affect regulation, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control.
- Onset of symptoms in childhood/adolescence with stability over time.
- Typical presentation involves comorbid disorders (more than one personality disorder or additional diagnoses of depression, anxiety, somatoform, or substance use disorder).
- Ongoing relationship with a primary care physician is essential but may be challenging to maintain.
- Potential for self-harm must be monitored. There is also potential for social withdrawal.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Citations
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022.[Full Text]
Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, et al. Efficacy of psychotherapies for borderline personality disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 1;74(4):319-28.[Abstract][Full Text]
Storebø OJ, Stoffers-Winterling JM, Völlm BA, et al. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5:CD012955.[Abstract][Full Text]
Abbass AA, Kisely SR, Town JM, et al. Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jul 1;(7):CD004687.[Abstract][Full Text]
Herpertz SC, Zanarini M, Schulz CS, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of personality disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007;8(4):212-44.[Abstract][Full Text]
1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed, text revision (DSM-5-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2022.[Full Text]
2. Bajaj P, Tyrer P. Managing mood disorders and comorbid personality disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005 Jan;18(1):27-31.[Abstract]
3. Gunderson J, Weinberg I, Daversa M, et al. Descriptive and longitudinal observations on the relationship of borderline personality disorder and bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;163(7):1173-8.[Abstract]
4. Oldham JM, Skodol AE, Kellman HD, et al. Comorbidity of axis I and axis II disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Apr;152(4):571-8.[Abstract]
5. World Health Organization. ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
6. Samuels J, Eaton WW, Bienvenu OJ 3rd, et al. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorders in a community sample. Br J Psychiatry. 2002 Jun;180(6):536-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Crawford T, Cohen P, Johnson J, et al. Self-reported personality disorder in the children in the community sample: convergent and prospective validity in late adolescence and adulthood. J Pers Disord. 2005 Feb;19(1):30-52.[Abstract]
8. Grant B, Hasin D, Stinson F, et al. Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 Jul;65(7):948-58.[Abstract]
9. Trull TJ, Jahng S, Tomko RL, et al. Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: gender, prevalence, and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. J Pers Disord. 2010 Aug;24(4):412-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Volkert J, Gablonski TC, Rabung S. Prevalence of personality disorders in the general adult population in Western countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2018 Dec;213(6):709-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, et al. DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 Sep 15;62(6):553-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Cramer V. The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001 Jun;58(6):590-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Coid J, Yang M, Tyrer P, et al. Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain. Br J Psychiatry. 2006 May;188(5):423-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
14. McGilloway A, Hall RE, Lee T, et al. A systematic review of personality disorder, race and ethnicity: prevalence, aetiology and treatment. BMC Psychiatry. 2010 May 11;10:33.[Abstract][Full Text]
15. Reichborn-Kjennerud T. Genetics of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):421-40.[Abstract]
16. Rhee S, Waldman I. Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull. 2002 May;128(3):490-529.[Abstract]
17. Torgersen S, Lygren S, Oien PA, et al. A twin study of personality disorders. Compr Psychiatry. 2000 Nov-Dec;41(6):416-25.[Abstract]
18. Bradley R, Jenei J, Westen D. Etiology of borderline personality disorder: disentangling the contributions of intercorrelated antecedents. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005 Jan;193(1):24-31.[Abstract]
19. Coolidge F, Thede L, Jang K. Heritability of personality disorders in childhood: a preliminary investigation. J Pers Disord. 2001 Feb;15(1):33-40.[Abstract]
20. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Neale MC, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster C personality disorders: a population-based multivariate twin study. Psychol Med. 2007 May;37(5):645-53.[Abstract]
21. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Ystrøm E, et al. A longitudinal twin study of borderline and antisocial personality disorder traits in early to middle adulthood. Psychol Med. 2015 Oct;45(14):3121-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
22. Kaffman A, Meaney MJ. Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007 Mar-Apr;48(3-4):224-44.[Abstract]
23. Martín-Blanco A, Ferrer M, Soler J, et al. The role of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal genes and childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016 Jun;266(4):307-16.[Abstract]
24. Essex MJ, Klein MH, Cho E, et al. Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: effects on cortisol and behavior. Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Oct 15;52(8):776-84.[Abstract]
25. Winsper C, Wolke D, Lereya T. Prospective associations between prenatal adversities and borderline personality disorder at 11-12 years. Psychol Med. 2015 Apr;45(5):1025-37.[Abstract]
26. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Brown J, et al. Childhood maltreatment increases risk for personality disorders during early adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999 Jul;56(7):600-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Eikenaes I, Egeland J, Hummelen B, et al. Avoidant personality disorder versus social phobia: the significance of childhood neglect. PLoS One. 2015 Mar 27;10(3):e0122846.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Spatz Widom C, Czaja SJ, Paris J. A prospective investigation of borderline personality disorder in abused and neglected children followed up into adulthood. J Pers Disord. 2009 Oct;23(5):433-46.[Abstract]
29. Jang K, Dick D, Wolf H, et al. Psychosocial adversity and emotional instability: an application of gene-environment interaction models. Eur J Pers. 2005 Jun;19(4):359-72.[Full Text]
30. Brent DA, Melhem N. Familial transmission of suicidal behavior. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Jun;31(2):157-77.[Abstract][Full Text]
31. Mittal VA, Dhruv S, Tessner KD, et al. The relations among putative biorisk markers in schizotypal adolescents: minor physical anomalies, movement abnormalities, and salivary cortisol. Biol Psychiatry. 2007 May 15;61(10):1179-86.[Abstract]
32. New AS, Goodman M, Tribwasser J, et al. Recent advances in the biological study of personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):441-61,vii.[Abstract]
33. Johnson PA, Hurley RA, Benkelfat C, et al. Understanding emotion regulation in borderline personality disorder: contributions of neuroimaging. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2003 Fall;15(4):397-402.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Friedel RO. Dopamine dysfunction in borderline personality disorder: a hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004 Jun;29(6):1029-39.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Herpertz SC, Bertsch K. A new perspective on the pathophysiology of borderline personality disorder: a model of the role of oxytocin. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 Sep 1;172(9):840-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
36. Bertsch K, Schmidinger I, Neumann ID, et al. Reduced plasma oxytocin levels in female patients with borderline personality disorder. Horm Behav. 2013 Mar;63(3):424-9.[Abstract]
37. Kendler K, Czajkowski N, Tambs K, et al. Dimensional representations of DSM-IV Cluster A personality disorders in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins: a multivariate study. Psychol Med. 2006 Nov;36(11):1583-91.[Abstract]
38. Tienari P, Wynne LC, Läksy K, et al. Genetic boundaries of the schizophrenia spectrum: evidence from the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003 Sep;160(9):1587-94.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Chen H, et al. Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 May;63(5):579-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
40. Helgeland MI, Kjelsberg E, Torgersen S. Continuities between emotional and disruptive behavior disorders in adolescence and personality disorders in adulthood. Am J Psychiatry. 2005 Oct;162(10):1941-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
41. Hahn SR, Thompson KS, Wills TA, et al. The difficult doctor-patient relationship: somatization, personality and psychopathology. J Clin Epidemiol. 1994 Jun;47(6):647-57.[Abstract]
42. Rost KM, Akins RN, Brown FW, et al. The comorbidity of DSM-III-R personality disorders in somatization disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1992 Sep;14(5):322-6.[Abstract]
43. Joiner T, Kalafat J, Draper J, et al. Establishing standards for the assessment of suicide risk among callers to the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2007 Jun;37(3):353-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
44. Moran P, Leese M, Lee T, et al. Standardised Assessment of Personality - Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS): preliminary validation of a brief screen for personality disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2003 Sep;183:228-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
45. Hesse M, Moran P. Screening for personality disorder with the Standardised Assessment of Personality - Abbreviated Scale (SAPAS): further evidence of concurrent validity. BMC Psychiatry. 2010 Jan 28;10:10.[Abstract][Full Text]
46. Gorwood P, Rouillon F, Even C, et al. Treatment response in major depression: effects of personality dysfunction and prior depression. Br J Psychiatry. 2010 Feb;196(2):139-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
47. Morse JQ, Pilkonis PA. Screening for personality disorders. J Pers Disord. 2007 Apr;21(2):179-98.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Walters P, Moran P, Choudhury P, et al. Screening for personality disorder: a comparison of personality disorder assessment by patients and informants. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2004;13(1):34-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Kroenke K, et al. Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care: the PRIME-MD 1000 study. JAMA. 1994 Dec 14;272(22):1749-56.[Abstract]
50. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001 Sep;16(9):606-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB, et al. Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection. Ann Intern Med. 2007 Mar 6;146(5):317-25.[Abstract]
52. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006 May 22;166(10):1092-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Hirschfeld RM, Williams JB, Spitzer RL, et al. Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: the Mood Disorder Questionnaire. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Nov;157(11):1873-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. LeFevre ML; US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for suicide risk in adolescents, adults, and older adults in primary care: US Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2014 May 20;160(10):719-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Whitlock EP, Polen MR, Green CA, et al. Behavioral counseling interventions in primary care to reduce risky/harmful alcohol use by adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Apr 6;140(7):557-68.[Abstract][Full Text]
56. Balint M. The doctor, his patient, and the illness. New York, NY: International Universities Press; 1957.
57. Devens M. Personality disorders. Prim Care. 2007 Sep;34(3):623-40.[Abstract]
58. Zaheer J, Links PS, Liu E. Assessment and emergency management of suicidality in personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):527-43.[Abstract]
59. Soloff PH, Lynch KG, Kelly TM, et al. Characteristics of suicide attempts of patients with major depressive episode and borderline personality disorder: a comparative study. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Apr;157(4):601-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Apter A, Bleich A, King RA, et al. Death without warning? A clinical postmortem study of suicide in 43 Israeli adolescent males. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;50(2):138-42.[Abstract]
61. Fenton WS, McGlashan TH, Victor BJ, et al. Symptoms, subtype and suicidality in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Feb;154(2):199-204.[Abstract]
62. Duggan C, Huband N, Smailagic N, et al. The use of psychological treatments for people with personality disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Pers Ment Health. 2007 Nov;1(2):95-125.[Full Text]
63. Paris J. Clinical trials of treatment for personality disorders. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2008 Sep;31(3):517-26.[Abstract]
64. Gunderson JG. Clinical practice. Borderline personality disorder. N Engl J Med. 2011 May 26;364(21):2037-42.[Abstract]
65. Cristea IA, Gentili C, Cotet CD, et al. Efficacy of psychotherapies for borderline personality disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 Apr 1;74(4):319-28.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. Storebø OJ, Stoffers-Winterling JM, Völlm BA, et al. Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 May 4;5:CD012955.[Abstract][Full Text]
67. Gibbon S, Khalifa NR, Cheung NH, et al. Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 3;9:CD007668.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Armelius BA, Andreassen TH. Cognitive-behavioral treatment for antisocial behavior in youth in residential treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Oct 17;(4):CD005650.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Simon W. Follow-up psychotherapy outcome of patients with dependent, avoidant and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: a meta-analytic review. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2009;13(2):153-65.[Abstract]
70. Abbass AA, Kisely SR, Town JM, et al. Short-term psychodynamic psychotherapies for common mental disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Jul 1;(7):CD004687.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. Dimeff LA, Koerner K, eds. Dialectical behavior therapy in clinical practice. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2007.
72. Duggan C, Huband N, Smailagic N, et al. The use of pharmacological treatments for people with personality disorder: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Pers Ment Health. 2008 Jul;2(3):119-70.[Full Text]
73. Bateman AW, Gunderson J, Mulder R, et al. Treatment of personality disorder. Lancet. 2015 Feb 21;385(9969):735-43.[Abstract]
74. Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, et al. Axis I comorbidity in patients with borderline personality disorder: 6-year follow-up and prediction of time to remission. Am J Psychiatry. 2004 Nov;161(11):2108-14.[Abstract][Full Text]
75. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Borderline personality disorder: recognition and management. Jan 2009 [internet publication].[Full Text]
76. Goldberg SC, Schulz SC, Schulz PM, et al. Borderline and schizotypal personality disorders treated with low-dose thiothixene vs placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Jul;43(7):680-6.[Abstract]
77. Koenigsberg HW, Reynolds D, Goodman M, et al. Risperidone in the treatment of schizotypal personality disorder. J Clinical Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;64(6):628-34.[Abstract]
78. Soloff PH, George A, Nathan RS, et al. Progress in pharmacotherapy of borderline disorders. A double-blind study of amitriptyline, haloperidol, and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986 Jul;43(7):691-7.[Abstract]
79. Serban G, Siegel S. Response of borderline and schizotypal patients to small doses of thiothixene and haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry. 1984 Nov;141(11):1455-8.[Abstract]
80. Markovitz PJ, Calabrese JR, Schulz SC, et al. Fluoxetine in the treatment of borderline and schizotypal personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1991 Aug;148(8):1064-7.[Abstract]
81. Jensen HV, Andersen J. An open, noncomparative study of amoxapine in borderline disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1989 Jan;79(1):89-93.[Abstract]
82. Mercer D, Douglass AB, Links PS, et al. Meta-analyses of mood stabilizers, antidepressants and antipsychotics in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: effectiveness for depression and anger symptoms. J Pers Disord. 2009 Apr;23(2):156-74.[Abstract]
83. Ingenhoven T, Lafay P, Rinne T, et al. Effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for severe personality disorders: meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010 Jan;71(1):14-25.[Abstract]
84. Crawford MJ, Sanatinia R, Barrett B, et al. Lamotrigine for people with borderline personality disorder: a RCT. Health Technol Assess. 2018 Apr;22(17):1-68.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Khalifa NR, Gibbon S, Völlm BA, et al. Pharmacological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 3;9:CD007667.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Sheard MH, Marini JL, Bridges CI, et al. The effect of lithium on impulsive aggressive behavior in man. Am J Psychiatry. 1976 Dec;133(12):1409-13.[Abstract]
87. Barratt ES, Kent TA, Bryant SG, et al. Controlled trial of phenytoin in impulsive aggression. J Clinical Psychopharmacol. 1991 Dec;11(6):388-9.[Abstract]
88. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Antisocial personality disorder: prevention and management. Mar 2013 [internet publication].[Full Text]
89. Loranger AW, Sartorius N, Andreoli A, et al. The International Personality Disorder Examination. The World Health Organization/Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration international pilot study of personality disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994 Mar;51(3):215-24.[Abstract]
90. Alden LE, Laposa JM, Taylor CT, et al. Avoidant personality disorder: current status and future directions. J Pers Disord. 2002 Feb;16(1):1-29.[Abstract]
91. Herpertz SC, Zanarini M, Schulz CS, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of personality disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007;8(4):212-44.[Abstract][Full Text]
92. Van Ameringen MA, Lane RM, WAlker JR, et al. Sertraline treatment of generalized social phobia: a 20-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;158(2):275-81.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Pande AC, Feltner DE, Jefferson JW, et al. Efficacy of the novel anxiolytic pregabalin in social anxiety disorder: a placebo-controlled, multicenter study. J Clinical Psychopharmacol. 2004 Apr;24(2):141-9.[Abstract]
94. Pande AC, Davidson JR, Jefferson JW, et al. Treatment of social phobia with gabapentin: a placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999 Aug;19(4):341-8.[Abstract]
95. Soloff PH. Symptom-oriented psychopharmacology for personality disorders. J Psych Prac. 1998 Jan;4(1):3-11.[Full Text]
96. Soloff PH. Algorithms for pharmacological treatment of personality dimensions: symptom-specific treatments for cognitive-perceptual, affective, and impulse-behavioral dysregulation. Bull Menninger Clin. 1998 Spring;62(2):195-214.[Abstract]
97. Ripoll LH. Clinical psychopharmacology of borderline personality disorder: an update on the available evidence in light of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2012 Jan;25(1):52-8.[Abstract]
98. Bellino S, Bozzatello P, Blandamura A, et al. Antidepressants in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a review of literature data [in Italian]. J Psychopathol. 2009;15(2):163-76.[Full Text]
99. Kleber HD, Weiss RD, Anton RF Jr, et al; Work Group on Substance Use Disorders. Treatment of patients with substance use disorders: second edition. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Aug;163(8 Suppl):5-82.[Abstract]
100. Rudd MD, Mandrusiak M, Joiner Jr TE. The case against no-suicide contracts: the commitment to treatment statement as a practice alternative. J Clin Psychol. 2006 Feb;62(2):243-51.[Abstract]
101. European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Mar 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
102. Gibbon S, Duggan C, Stoffers J, et al. Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jun 16;(6):CD007668.[Abstract][Full Text]
103. Van Ameringen MA, Lane RM, WAlker JR, et al. Sertraline treatment of generalized social phobia: a 20-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Feb;158(2):275-81.[Abstract]
104. Reyes-López J, Ricardo-Garcell J, Armas-Castañeda G, et al. Clinical improvement in patients with borderline personality disorder after treatment with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: preliminary results. Braz J Psychiatry. 2018 Jan-Mar;40(1):97-104.[Abstract][Full Text]
105. Schulze L, Grove M, Tamm S, et al. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation on the cognitive control of negative stimuli in borderline personality disorder. Sci Rep. 2019 Jan 23;9(1):332.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Zanarini MC, Frankenburg FR, Hennen J, et al. Prediction of the 10-year course of borderline personality disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 May;163(5):827-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Bateman A, Fonagy P. Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1999 Oct;156(10):1563-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Gunderson JG, Stout RL, McGlashan TH, et al. Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder: psychopathology and function from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Aug;68(8):827-37.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Soloff PH, Fabio A, Kelly TM, et al. High-lethality status in patients with borderline personality disorder. J Pers Disord. 2005 Aug;19(4):386-99.[Abstract]
110. Oldham JM. Borderline personality disorder and suicidality. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jan;163(1):20-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. McMain S. Effectiveness of psychosocial treatments on suicidality in personality disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;52(6 Suppl 1):103S-14S.[Abstract]
