Food allergy - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

Food allergy is an adverse immune response to food proteins. Most reactions are from peanut, tree nuts, milk, egg, fish, shellfish, wheat, and soy. Symptoms usually appear within 20 minutes of ingestion and nearly always within 2 hours.
Symptoms and signs may vary from pruritus and mild cutaneous eruption to severe anaphylactic respiratory, gastrointestinal, or cardiovascular (e.g., hypotensive) manifestations.
Epinephrine given by intramuscular injection is the treatment of choice for severe systemic symptoms (anaphylaxis); lesser reactions are managed with a range of therapies from simple withdrawal of suspected food allergen to oral antihistamines.
Patients should be encouraged to obtain medical identification jewelry, be knowledgeable of the incipient signs and symptoms of an allergic reaction, be trained how to use an epinephrine auto-injector, and know how to activate emergency response services.

Typical cutaneous findings in food allergy at 30 minutes after ingestion of peanuts

From the collection of Duke University Medical Center; used with permission

Quick Reference

History & Exam
- Key Factors
- Other Factors
More information...
Diagnostics Tests
More information...
Treatment Options
More information...

Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Images

Typical cutaneous findings in food allergy at 30 minutes after ingestion of peanuts

Citations

Key Articles

Chafen JJ, Newberry SJ, Riedl MA, et al. Diagnosing and managing common food allergies: a systematic review. JAMA. 2010 May 12;303(18):1848-56. [Abstract]
Sicherer SH, Sampson HA. Food allergy: recent advances in pathophysiology and treatment. Annu Rev Med. 2009 Feb;60:261-77.[Abstract]
Greer FR, Sicherer SH, Burks AW, et al. The effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, hydrolyzed formulas, and timing of introduction of allergenic complementary foods. Pediatrics. 2019 Apr;143(4):e20190281. [Abstract][Full Text]
Muraro A, Halken S, Arshad SH, et al. EAACI food allergy and anaphylaxis guidelines: primary prevention of food allergy. Allergy. 2014 May;69(5):590-601.[Abstract][Full Text]
Sampson HA, Gerth van Wijk R, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. Standardizing double-blind, placebo-controlled oral food challenges: American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology-European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology PRACTALL consensus report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 Dec;130(6):1260-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
Heyman MB. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Lactose intolerance in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2006 Sep;118(3):1279-86.[Abstract][Full Text]

Other Online Resources

AAP: allergy and anaphylaxis emergency plan
AAAAI: food allergy stages handouts
FARE: food allergy research and education
AAAAI: allergy asthma and immunology resources

Referenced Articles

1. Sicherer SH, Sampson HA. 9. Food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Feb;117(2 suppl Mini-Primer):S470-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
2. Dalal I, Binson I, Levine A, et al. The pattern of sesame sensitivity among infants and children. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2003 Aug;14(4):312-6.[Abstract]
3. Sampson HA, Aceves S, Bock SA, et al. Food allergy: a practice parameter update - 2014. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014 Nov;134(5):1016-25;e43.[Abstract][Full Text]
4. Sicherer SH, Leung DY. Advances in allergic skin disease, anaphylaxis, and hypersensitivity reactions to foods, drugs, and insects in 2008. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009 Feb;123(2):319-27.[Abstract]
5. Chafen JJ, Newberry SJ, Riedl MA, et al. Diagnosing and managing common food allergies: a systematic review. JAMA. 2010 May 12;303(18):1848-56. [Abstract]
6. Gupta RS, Warren CM, Smith BM, et al. Prevalence and severity of food allergies among US adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Jan 4;2(1):e185630.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Young E, Stoneham MD, Petruckevitch A, et al. A population study of food intolerance. Lancet. 1994 May 7;343(8906):1127-30.[Abstract]
8. Bock SA. Prospective appraisal of complaints of adverse reactions to foods in children during the first 3 years of life. Pediatrics. 1987 May;79(5):683-8.[Abstract]
9. Bock SA, Atkins FM. Patterns of food hypersensitivity during sixteen years of double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenges. J Pediatr. 1990 Oct;117(4):561-7.[Abstract]
10. Jansen JJ, Kardinaal AF, Huijbers G, et al. Prevalence of food allergy and intolerance in the adult Dutch population. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1994 Feb;93(2):446-56.[Abstract]
11. Sicherer SH, Munoz-Furlong A, Sampson HA. Prevalence of peanut and tree nut allergy in the United States determined by means of a random digit dial telephone survey: a 5-year follow-up study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Dec;112(6):1203-7.[Abstract]
12. Gupta RS, Warren CM, Smith BM, et al. The public health impact of parent-reported childhood food allergies in the United States. Pediatrics. 2018 Dec;142(6):e20181235.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Rance F. Mustard allergy as a new food allergy. Allergy. 2003 Apr;58(4):287-8.[Abstract]
14. Beyer K, Morrow E, Li XM, et al. Effects of cooking methods on peanut allergenicity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Jun;107(6):1077-81.[Abstract]
15. Hourihane JO, Dean TP, Warner JO. Peanut allergy in relation to heredity, maternal diet, and other atopic diseases: results of a questionnaire survey, skin prick testing, and food challenges. BMJ. 1996 Aug 31;313(7056):518-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Sicherer SH, Sampson HA. Food allergy: recent advances in pathophysiology and treatment. Annu Rev Med. 2009 Feb;60:261-77.[Abstract]
17. Fox AT, Sasieni P, du Toit G, et al. Household peanut consumption as a risk factor for the development of peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009 Feb;123(2):417-23.[Abstract]
18. Chung CH, Mirakhur B, Chan E, et al. Cetuximab-induced anaphylaxis and IgE specific for galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose. N Engl J Med. 2008 Mar 13;358(11):1109-17.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Adkinson NF, Yunginger JW, Busse WW, et al. Middleton's allergy: principles and practice. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby; 2003.
20. Sicherer SH, Furlong TJ, Maes HH, et al. Genetics of peanut allergy: a twin study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2000 Jul;106(1 Pt 1):53-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
21. Eigenmann PA, Sicherer SH, Borkowski TA, et al. Prevalence of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatrics. 1998;101:E8.[Abstract]
22. Hill DJ, Hosking CS, de Benedictis FM, et al; EPAAC Study Group. Confirmation of the association between high levels of immunoglobulin E food sensitization and eczema in infancy: an international study. Clin Exp Allergy. 2008 Jan;38(1):161-8. [Abstract]
23. Togias A, Cooper SF, Acebal ML, et al. Addendum guidelines for the prevention of peanut allergy in the United States: report of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases-sponsored expert panel. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2017 Feb;118(2):166-73;e7.[Abstract][Full Text]
24. Upadhyaya B, Yin Y, Hill BJ, et al. Hierarchical IL-5 expression defines a subpopulation of highly differentiated human Th2 cells. J Immunol. 2011;187:3111-3120.[Abstract][Full Text]
25. Lack G, Fox D, Northstone K, et al. Factors associated with the development of peanut allergy in childhood. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:977-985.[Abstract][Full Text]
26. Greer FR, Sicherer SH, Burks AW, et al. The effects of early nutritional interventions on the development of atopic disease in infants and children: the role of maternal dietary restriction, breastfeeding, hydrolyzed formulas, and timing of introduction of allergenic complementary foods. Pediatrics. 2019 Apr;143(4):e20190281. [Abstract][Full Text]
27. Kramer MS, Kakuma R. Maternal dietary antigen avoidance during pregnancy or lactation, or both, for preventing or treating atopic disease in the child. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Sep 12;(9):CD000133.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. D'Vaz N, Meldrum SJ, Dunstan JA, et al. Postnatal fish oil supplementation in high-risk infants to prevent allergy: randomized controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2012 Oct;130(4):674-82.[Abstract]
29. Klemens CM, Berman DR, Mozurkewich EL. The effect of perinatal omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on inflammatory markers and allergic diseases: a systematic review. BJOG. 2011 Jul;118(8):916-25.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Palmer DJ, Sullivan T, Gold MS, et al. Effect of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on infants' allergies in first year of life: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2012 Jan 30;344:e184.[Abstract][Full Text]
31. Muraro A, Halken S, Arshad SH, et al. EAACI food allergy and anaphylaxis guidelines: primary prevention of food allergy. Allergy. 2014 May;69(5):590-601.[Abstract][Full Text]
32. Du Toit G, Roberts G, Sayre PH, et al. Randomized trial of peanut consumption in infants at risk for peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2015 Feb 26;372(9):803-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Du Toit G, Sayre PH, Roberts G, et al. Effect of avoidance on peanut allergy after early peanut consumption. N Engl J Med. 2016 Apr 14;374(15):1435-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Perkin MR, Logan K, Tseng A, et al. Randomized trial of introduction of allergenic foods in breast-fed infants. N Engl J Med. 2016 May 5;374(18):1733-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Scientific Advisory Committee; Nutrition and the Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals. Assessing the health benefits and risks of the introduction of peanut and hen's egg into the infant diet before six months of age in the UK [internet publication].[Full Text]
36. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Ten things physicians and patients should question. Choosing Wisely, an initiative of the ABIM Foundation. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
37. American Academy of Pediatrics. Ten things physicians and patients should question. Choosing Wisely, an initiative of the ABIM Foundation. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
38. Bock SA, Muñoz-Furlong A, Sampson HA. Fatalities due to anaphylactic reactions to foods. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Jan;107(1):191-3.[Abstract]
39. Sampson HA. Food sensitivity and the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. J R Soc Med. 1997;90(suppl 30):2-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
40. Moneret-Vautrin DA, Morisset M. Adult food allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2005 Jan;5(1):80-5.[Abstract]
41. Osterballe M, Hansen TK, Mortz CG, et al. The prevalence of food hypersensitivity in an unselected population of children and adults. Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2005 Nov;16(7):567-73.[Abstract]
42. Sampson HA. Food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1989 Dec;84(6 Pt 2):1062-7.[Abstract]
43. Burks AW, Sampson HA. Diagnostic approaches to the patient with suspected food allergies. J Pediatr. 1992 Nov;121(5 Pt 2):S64-71.[Abstract]
44. Lack G. Clinical practice. Food allergy. New Engl J Med. 2008 Sep 18;359(12):1252-60.[Abstract]
45. Singh AM, Anvari S, Hauk P, et al. Atopic dermatitis and food allergy: best practices and knowledge gaps - a work group report from the AAAAI Allergic Skin Diseases Committee and Leadership Institute Project. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2022 Mar;10(3):697-706.[Abstract]
46. Ortolani C, Ispano M, Pastorello EA, et al. Comparison of results of skin prick tests (with fresh foods and commercial food extracts) and RAST in 100 patients with oral allergy syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1989 Mar;83(3):683-90.[Abstract]
47. Chang A, Robison R, Cai M, et al. Natural history of food-triggered atopic dermatitis and development of immediate reactions in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016 Mar-Apr;4(2):229-36;e1.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. David TJ. Anaphylactic shock during elimination diets for severe atopic eczema. Arch Dis Child. 1984 Oct;59(10):983-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Eigenmann PA, Beyer K, Lack G, et al. Are avoidance diets still warranted in children with atopic dermatitis? Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 2020 Jan;31(1):19-26.[Abstract]
50. Sampson HA, Gerth van Wijk R, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. Standardizing double-blind, placebo-controlled oral food challenges: American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology-European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology PRACTALL consensus report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012 Dec;130(6):1260-74.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Boyce JA, Assa'ad A, Burks AW, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: summary of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010 Dec;126(6):1105-18.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. Flores Kim J, McCleary N, Nwaru BI, et al. Diagnostic accuracy, risk assessment, and cost-effectiveness of component-resolved diagnostics for food allergy: a systematic review. Allergy. 2018 Aug;73(8):1609-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Datema MR, van Ree R, Asero R, et al. Component-resolved diagnosis and beyond: Multivariable regression models to predict severity of hazelnut allergy. Allergy. 2018 Mar;73(3):549-59.[Abstract]
54. Greenhawt M, Shaker M, Wang J, et al. Peanut allergy diagnosis: a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and GRADE analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020 Dec;146(6):1302-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Nowak-Wegrzyn A. Future approaches to food allergy. Pediatrics. 2003 Jun;111(6 Pt 3):1672-80.[Abstract]
56. Sampson HA. Update on food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2004 May;113(5):805-19;quiz 820.[Abstract][Full Text]
57. Celik-Bilgili S, Mehl A, Verstege A, et al. The predictive value of specific immunoglobulin E levels in serum for the outcome of oral food challenges. Clin Exp Allergy. 2005 Mar;35(3):268-73. [Abstract]
58. Garcia-Ara C, Boyano-Martínez T, Díaz-Pena JM, et al. Specific IgE levels in the diagnosis of immediate hypersensitivity to cows' milk protein in the infant. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Jan;107(1):185-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Sampson HA, Ho DG. Relationship between food-specific IgE concentrations and the risk of positive food challenges in children and adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997 Oct;100(4):444-51.[Abstract]
60. Wang J, Godbold JH, Sampson HA. Correlation of serum allergy (IgE) tests performed by different assay systems. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008 May;121(5):1219-24. [Abstract][Full Text]
61. Sporik R, Hill DJ, Hosking CS. Specificity of allergen skin testing in predicting positive open food challenges to milk, egg and peanut in children. Clin Exp Allergy. 2000 Nov;30(11):1540-6. [Abstract]
62. Burks W. Skin manifestations of food allergy. Pediatrics. 2003 Jun;111(6 Pt 3):1617-24.[Abstract]
63. Diez E, Boixeda P. Frey's sydrome in childhood. Actas Dermosifiliogr. 2007 Jan-Feb;98(1):45-6.[Abstract]
64. Roberts G, Lack G. Food allergy and asthma: what is the link? Paediatr Respir Rev. 2003 Sep;4(3):205-12.[Abstract]
65. Custer JW, Rau RE. Johns Hopkins Hospital. The Harriet Lane handbook: a manual for pediatric house officers. 18th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier; 2009.
66. Hofmann A, Burks AW. Pollen food syndrome: update on the allergens. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2008 Sep;8(5):413-7.[Abstract]
67. McMillan JA, DeAngelis CD, Feigin RD, et al. Oski's pediatrics: principles and practice. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999.
68. Nelson WE, Behrman RE, Kliegman R. Nelson essentials of pediatrics. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 1990.
69. Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Goldman: Cecil medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2008.
70. Heyman MB. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Nutrition. Lactose intolerance in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2006 Sep;118(3):1279-86.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. Ford MD, Delaney KA, Ling LJ, et al. eds. Clinical toxicology. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2001.
72. Feldman, M, Friedman LS, Brandt LJ, eds. Sleisenger & Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2006.
73. Helander A, Some M. Dietary serotonin and alcohol combined may provoke adverse physiological symptoms due to 5-hydroxytryptophol. Life Sci. 2000 Jul 7;67(7):799-806.[Abstract]
74. Rubio-Tapia A, Hill ID, Semrad C, et al. American College of Gastroenterology guidelines update: diagnosis and management of celiac disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2023 Jan 1;118(1):59-76. [Abstract][Full Text]
75. Shaker MS, Wallace DV, Golden DBK, et al. Anaphylaxis - a 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2020 Apr;145(4):1082-123.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Golden DBK, Wang J, Waserman S, et al. Anaphylaxis: a 2023 practice parameter update. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2024 Feb;132(2):124-76.[Abstract]
77. Muraro A, Worm M, Alviani C, et al. EAACI guidelines: anaphylaxis (2021 update). Allergy. 2022 Feb;77(2):357-77. [Abstract][Full Text]
78. Leech SC, Ewan PW, Skypala IJ, et al. BSACI 2021 guideline for the management of egg allergy. Clin Exp Allergy. 2021 Oct;51(10):1262-78.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Yu JW, Kagan R, Verreault N, et al. Accidental ingestions in children with peanut allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Aug;118(2):466-72.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. Wang J, Sicherer SH; Section on Allergy and Immunology. Guidance on completing a written allergy and anaphylaxis emergency plan. Pediatrics. 2017 Mar;139(3):e20164005. [Abstract][Full Text]
81. Muraro A, Roberts G, Clark A, et al; EAACI Task Force on Anaphylaxis in Children. The management of anaphylaxis in childhood: position paper of the European academy of allergology and clinical immunology. Allergy. 2007 Aug;62(8):857-71.[Abstract]
82. Kemp SF, Lockey RF, Simons FE, et al. Epinephrine: the drug of choice for anaphylaxis. A statement of the World Allergy Organization. Allergy. 2008 Aug;63(8):1061-70.[Abstract]
83. Sicherer SH, Simons FE; Section on Allergy and Immunology. Epinephrine for first-aid management of anaphylaxis. Pediatrics. 2017 Mar;139(3):e20164006.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. Lieberman P, Kemp SF, Oppenheimer J, et al. The diagnosis and management of anaphylaxis: an updated practice parameter. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Mar;115(3 suppl 2):S483-523.[Abstract]
85. Sampson HA, Munoz-Furlong A, Campbell RL, et al. Second symposium on the definition and management of anaphylaxis: summary report. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Feb;117(2):391-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Lieberman P, Nicklas RA, Randolph C, et al. Anaphylaxis: a practice parameter update 2015. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2015 Nov;115(5):341-84.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Adrenaline auto-injectors: updated advice after European review. Dec 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
88. Sporik R, Henderson J, Hourihane, JO. Clinical immunology review series: an approach to the patient with allergy in childhood. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009 Mar;155(3):378-86.[Abstract]
89. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Adrenaline auto-injectors: updated advice after European review. August 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
90. Enrique E, Pineda F, Malek T, et al. Sublingual immunotherapy for hazelnut food allergy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study with a standardized hazelnut extract. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Nov;116(5):1073-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
91. Kim EH, Bird JA, Kulis M, et al. Sublingual immunotherapy for peanut allergy: clinical and immunologic evidence of desensitization. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Mar;127(3):640-6;e1.[Abstract][Full Text]
92. PALISADE Group of Clinical Investigators., Vickery BP, Vereda A, et al. AR101 oral immunotherapy for peanut allergy. N Engl J Med. 2018 Nov 22;379(21):1991-2001.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Chu DK, Wood RA, French S, et al. Oral immunotherapy for peanut allergy (PACE): a systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy and safety. Lancet. 2019 Jun 1;393(10187):2222-32.[Abstract]
94. Anagnostou K, Islam S, King Y, et al. Assessing the efficacy of oral immunotherapy for the desensitisation of peanut allergy in children (STOP II): a phase 2 randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2014 Apr 12;383(9925):1297-304. [Abstract]
95. Varshney P, Jones SM, Scurlock AM, et al. A randomized controlled study of peanut oral immunotherapy: clinical desensitization and modulation of the allergic response. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011 Mar;127(3):654-60. [Abstract][Full Text]
96. Chinthrajah RS, Purington N, Andorf S, et al. Sustained outcomes in oral immunotherapy for peanut allergy (POISED study): a large, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 study. Lancet. 2019 Oct 19;394(10207):1437-49.[Abstract]
97. Calvani M, Giorgio V, Miceli Sopo S. Specific oral tolerance induction for food: a systematic review. Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010 Feb;42(1):11-9.[Abstract]
98. Brożek JL, Terracciano L, Hsu J, et al. Oral immunotherapy for IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Exp Allergy. 2012 Mar;42(3):363-74.[Abstract]
99. Romantsik O, Tosca MA, Zappettini S, et al. Oral and sublingual immunotherapy for egg allergy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Apr 20;(4):CD010638.[Abstract][Full Text]
100. ClinicalTrials.gov. ADP101 for oral immunotherapy in food-allergic children and adults. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04856865. May 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
101. Wang J, Jones SM, Pongracic JA, et al. Safety, clinical, and immunologic efficacy of a Chinese herbal medicine (Food Allergy Herbal Formula-2) for food allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015 Oct;136(4):962-70;e1.[Abstract][Full Text]
102. Clinical Trials.gov. E-B-FAHF-2, Multi OIT and Xolair (omalizumab) for food allergy. NCT02879006. Aug 2020 [internet publication]. [Full Text]
103. Wood RA, Kim JS, Lindblad R, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of omalizumab combined with oral immunotherapy for the treatment of cow's milk allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016 Apr;137(4):1103-10;e11. [Abstract][Full Text]
104. Clinical Trials.gov. Omalizumab as monotherapy and as adjunct therapy to multi-allergen OIT in food allergic participants (OUtMATCH). NCT03881696. Apr 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
105. Fleischer DM, Greenhawt M, Sussman G, et al. Effect of epicutaneous immunotherapy vs placebo on reaction to peanut protein ingestion among children with peanut allergy: the PEPITES randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019 Mar 12;321(10):946-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Clinical Trials.gov. Efficacy and safety of Viaskin Milk in children with IgE-mediated cow's milk allergy (MILES). NCT02223182. Feb 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
107. Clinical Trials.gov. Safety and efficacy study of Viaskin Peanut in peanut-allergic young children 1-3 years of age (EPITOPE). NCT03211247. Apr 2021 [internet publication]. [Full Text]
108. Fleischer DM, Chan ES, Venter C, et al. A consensus approach to the primary prevention of food allergy through nutrition: guidance from the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; and the Canadian Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2021 Jan;9(1):22-43;e4.[Abstract]
109. LeBovidge JS, Herbert LJ, Ramos A, et al. The development of age-based food allergy educational handouts for caregivers and patients: a work group report of the AAAAI adverse reactions to foods committee. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2022 Oct;10(10):2552-8.[Abstract]
110. Gereige RS, Gross T, Jastaniah E, et al. Individual medical emergencies occurring at school. Pediatrics. 2022 Jul 1;150(1):e2022057987.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. Osborn DA, Sinn JK, Jones LJ. Infant formulas containing hydrolysed protein for prevention of allergic disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Oct 19;(10):CD003664.[Abstract][Full Text]
112. Fiocchi A, Burks W, Bahna SL, et al; WAO Special Committee on Food Allergy and Nutrition. Clinical use of probiotics in pediatric allergy (CUPPA): a World Allergy Organization position paper. World Allergy Organ J. 2012 Nov;5(11):148-67.[Abstract]
113. Cuello-Garcia A, Fiocchi A, Pawankar R, et al. World Allergy Organization-McMaster University guidelines for allergic disease prevention (GLAD-P): prebiotics. World Allergy Organ J. 2016 Mar 1;9:10.[Abstract][Full Text]