Abdominal pain in pregnancy is common. Many adaptive or physiologic changes of pregnancy affect the presentation. Women tend to visit doctors often as they are concerned about the health of their fetus. Patients require a careful assessment in order to reduce anxiety and give reassurance. If the clinical picture is unclear, a specialist should be consulted.[1] [2]
Summary
Diagnostic challenges and pitfalls
The physiologic and anatomic changes of various organs during the course of pregnancy result in major diagnostic challenges for the clinician. Reproductive organs share the same visceral innervations as the lower ileum, sigmoid colon, and rectum. It is therefore often difficult to differentiate between pain of gynecologic and gastrointestinal origin. Pain may be due not only to pregnancy-specific causes or gynecologic conditions, but to many other diseases whose symptoms and signs may be altered significantly by the pregnant state. This is particularly true from the late second trimester onward.
Evaluation is based on 2 patients: the mother and the fetus. The potential adverse effects of anesthesia, drugs, and radiation on the fetus often complicate the traditional diagnostic approach. As a result, the presence of the fetus may lead to delayed intervention or invasive diagnostic tests. Furthermore, there is a general reluctance to operate unnecessarily on a gravid patient.
The acute abdomen in pregnancy remains a diagnostic dilemma. As pregnancy stretches the anterior abdominal wall, the resulting peritoneal signs are often different from what is expected in the nonpregnant patient owing to lack of contact with the underlying inflammation. In addition, the clinical picture may be distorted by the uterus obstructing the movement of the omentum to the area of inflammation.[3] Laboratory parameters can be nonspecific and are often altered due to physiologic changes in pregnancy.
Despite advances in medical technology, preoperative diagnosis of acute abdominal conditions can still be inaccurate, increasing the rate of exploratory laparotomy, cesarean section, premature delivery, and perinatal death.
Physiologic causes of abdominal pain or discomfort in pregnancy
Include Braxton-Hicks contractions and round ligament pain.[4] Both may be uncomfortable, but they do not usually cause pain and do not intensify or cause cervical dilation.
Braxton-Hicks contractions are sporadic contractions of the uterine muscles that may occur in the second and third trimester. The round ligaments of the uterus increase in length and diameter as pregnancy progresses and can cause sharp pains in the abdomen and pelvis; symptoms resolve with rest.
It is important to carefully consider pathologic causes of abdominal pain before a physiologic cause is diagnosed in a pregnant patient presenting with abdominal pain.
Library
Citations
Kumar SS, Collings AT, Wunker C, et al. SAGES guidelines for the use of laparoscopy during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 2024 Jun;38(6):2947-2963.[Abstract][Full Text]
Hahn SA, Promes SB, Brown MD. American College of Emergency Physicians clinical policies subcommittee (Writing Committee) on early pregnancy. Clinical policy: critical Issues in the initial evaluation and management of patients presenting to the emergency department in early pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med. 2017 Feb;69(2):241-50.e20.[Abstract][Full Text]
American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee opinion, no. 723: guidelines for diagnostic imaging during pregnancy and lactation. Oct 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
1. Chamberlain G. ABC of antenatal care: abdominal pain in pregnancy. BMJ. 1991 Jun 8;302(6789):1390-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
2. Augustin G, Majerovic M. Non-obstetrical acute abdomen during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Rep Biol. 2007 Mar;131(1):4-12.[Abstract]
3. Sivanesaratnam V. The acute abdomen and the obstetrician. Bailleres Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2000 Feb;14(1):89-102.[Abstract]
4. Dhamecha R, Pajai S, Bhasin T. Acute abdomen in pregnancy: a comprehensive review of diagnosis and management. Cureus. 2023 Jun;15(6):e40679.[Abstract][Full Text]
5. Seeber BE, Barnhart KT. Suspected ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Feb;107(2 Pt 1):399-413.[Abstract]
6. Xiong X, Buekens P, Wollast E. IUD use and the risk of ectopic pregnancy: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Contraception. 1995 Jul;52(1):23-34.[Abstract]
7. Santos-Ribeiro S, Tournaye H, Polyzos NP. Trends in ectopic pregnancy rates following assisted reproductive technologies in the UK: a 12-year nationwide analysis including 160 000 pregnancies. Hum Reprod. 2016 Feb;31(2):393-402.[Abstract][Full Text]
8. Perkins KM, Boulet SL, Kissin DM, et al. Risk of ectopic pregnancy associated with assisted reproductive technology in the United States, 2001-2011. Obstet Gynecol. 2015 Jan;125(1):70-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Practice Bulletins-Gynecology. ACOG practice bulletin no. 200: early pregnancy loss. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Nov;132(5):e197-207.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Stephenson MD, Awartani KA, Robinson WP. Cytogenetic analysis of miscarriages from couples with recurrent miscarriage: a case-control study. Hum Reprod. 2002 Feb;17(2):446-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
11. Menasha J, Levy B, Hirschhorn K, et al. Incidence and spectrum of chromosome abnormalities in spontaneous abortions: new insights from a 12-year study. Genet Med. 2005 Apr;7(4):251-63.[Abstract]
12. Wu X, Su L, Xie X, et al. Comprehensive analysis of early pregnancy loss based on cytogenetic findings from a tertiary referral center. Mol Cytogenet. 2021 Dec 4;14(1):56.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Human Fertilisation and Embryology. Fertility treatment 2023: trends and figures. Jun 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
14. Medwin C, Rozen G, Agresta F, et al. The ovarian hyperstimulation that truly matters: admissions, severity and prevention strategies. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2023 Aug;63(4):583-7.[Abstract]
15. Tomás C, Colmorn L, Rasmussen S, et al. Annual incidence of severe ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Dan Med J. 2021 Jan 26;68(2):A12190738.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Courbiere B, Oborski V, Braunstein D, et al. Obstetric outcome of women with in vitro fertilization pregnancies hospitalized for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome: a case-control study. Fertil Steril. 2011 Apr;95(5):1629-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Schirmer DA 3rd, Kulkarni AD, Zhang Y, et al. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome after assisted reproductive technologies: trends, predictors, and pregnancy outcomes. Fertil Steril. 2020 Sep;114(3):567-78.[Abstract][Full Text]
18. Al-Shawaf T, Grudzinskas JG. Prevention and treatment of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Apr;17(2):249-61.[Abstract]
19. Leitich H. Controversies in diagnosis of preterm labour. BJOG. 2005 Mar;112 Suppl 1:61-3.[Abstract]
20. Curet MJ. Special problems in laparoscopic surgery: previous abdominal surgery, obesity, and pregnancy. Surg Clin North Am. 2000 Aug;80(4):1093-110.[Abstract]
21. Goldenberg RL. The management of preterm labour. Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Nov;100(5 Pt 1):1020-37.[Abstract]
22. Turner MJ. Uterine rupture. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2002 Feb;16(1):69-79.[Abstract]
23. Oyelese Y, Ananth CV. Placental abruption. Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Oct;108(4):1005-16.[Abstract][Full Text]
24. Tikkanen M, Nuutila M, Hiilesmaa V, et al. Clinical presentation and risk factors of placental abruption. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2006;85(6):700-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
25. Erez O, Romero R, Jung E, et al. Preeclampsia and eclampsia: the conceptual evolution of a syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2022 Feb;226(2s):S786-803.[Abstract][Full Text]
26. Westbrook RH, Dusheiko G, Williamson C. Pregnancy and liver disease. J Hepatol. 2016 Apr;64(4):933-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Shnaekel KL, Wendel MP, Rabie NZ, et al. Incarceration of the gravid uterus. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2016 Oct;71(10):613-9.[Abstract]
28. Samejima K, Matsunaga S, Takai Y, et al. Efficacy of well-planned management in patients with incarcerated gravid uterus: a case series and literature review. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol. 2021 Jul;60(4):679-84.[Abstract][Full Text]
29. Yun F, Fu L, Wen J, et al. Incarceration of the gravid uterus in women with previous cesarean section: case series and literature review. Int J Womens Health. 2025;17:2255-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Ntafam CN, Beutler BD, Harris RD. Incarcerated gravid uterus: a rare but potentially devastating obstetric complication. Radiol Case Rep. 2022 May;17(5):1583-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
31. Gaughran J, Magee C, Mitchell S, et al. Adnexal masses in pregnancy: a single-centre prospective observational cohort study. diagnostics (Basel). 2024 Sep 30;14(19):2182.[Abstract][Full Text]
32. Cathcart AM, Nezhat FR, Emerson J, et al. Adnexal masses during pregnancy: diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2023 Jun;228(6):601-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Cagino K, Li X, Thomas C, et al. Surgical management of adnexal masses in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Minim Invasive Gynecol. 2021 Jun;28(6):1171-82.e2.[Abstract]
34. Montes de Oca MK, Dotters-Katz SK, Kuller JA, et al. Adnexal masses in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2021 Jul;76(7):437-50.[Abstract]
35. Webb KE, Sakhel K, Chauhan SP, et al. Adnexal mass during pregnancy: a review. Am J Perinatol. 2015 Sep;32(11):1010-6.[Abstract]
36. Young R, Cork K. Intermittent ovarian torsion in pregnancy. Clin Pract Cases Emerg Med. 2017 May;1(2):108-10.[Abstract][Full Text]
37. Hasson J, Tsafrir Z, Azem F, et al. Comparison of adnexal torsion between pregnant and nonpregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Jun;202(6):536.e1-6.[Abstract]
38. Spitzer D, Wirleitner B, Steiner H, et al. Adnexal torsion in pregnancy after assisted reproduction - case study and review of the literature. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2012 Aug;72(8):716-20.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Wang YX, Deng S. Clinical characteristics, treatment and outcomes of adnexal torsion in pregnant women: a retrospective study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2020 Aug 24;20(1):483.[Abstract][Full Text]
40. Zucchini S, Marra E. Diagnosis of emergencies/urgencies in gynecology and during the first trimester of pregnancy. J Ultrasound. 2014 Mar;17(1):41-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
41. Barcroft J, Pandrich M, Del Forno S, et al. Evaluating use of two-step International Ovarian Tumor Analysis strategy to classify adnexal masses identified in pregnancy: pilot study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2024 Dec;64(6):808-17.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Asfour V, Varma R, Menon P. Clinical risk factors for ovarian torsion. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2015;35(7):721-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Hallatt JG, Steele CH Jr, Snyder M. Ruptured corpus luteum with hemoperitoneum: a study of 173 surgical cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984 May 1;149(1):5-9.[Abstract]
44. Cheah G, Liu J. Rare case of haemoperitoneum secondary to a ruptured ovarian ectopic pregnancy superimposed by a bleeding corpus luteum cyst. BMJ Case Rep. 2024 Jan 29;17(1):e256872.[Abstract]
45. Cooper NP, Okolo S. Fibroids in pregnancy: common but poorly understood. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2005 Feb;60(2):132-8.[Abstract]
46. Mitro SD, Peddada S, Chen Z, et al. Natural history of fibroids in pregnancy: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Fetal Growth Studies - singletons cohort. Fertil Steril. 2022 Oct;118(4):656-65.[Abstract][Full Text]
47. Ghosh S, Naftalin J, Imrie R, et al. Natural history of uterine fibroids: a radiological perspective. Curr Obstet Gynecol Rep. 2018;7(3):117-21.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Benaglia L, Cardellicchio L, Filippi F, et al. The rapid growth of fibroids during early pregnancy. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e85933.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Douglas C, Owen A, Muhlmann M. Torted fibroid: a cause of acute abdomen in pregnancy. ANZ J Surg. 2025 Aug 22.[Full Text]
50. Sheffield JS, Cunningham FG. Urinary tract infection in women. Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Nov;106(5 Pt 1):1085-92.[Abstract]
51. Cormier CM, Canzoneri BJ, Lewis DF, et al. Urolithiasis in pregnancy: current diagnosis, treatment, and pregnancy complications. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2006 Nov;61(11):733-41.[Abstract]
52. Rasmussen PE, Nielsen FN. Hydronephrosis during pregnancy: a literature survey. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1988 Mar;27(3):249-59.[Abstract]
53. Kave M, Parooie F, Salarzaei M. Pregnancy and appendicitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis on the clinical use of MRI in diagnosis of appendicitis in pregnant women. World J Emerg Surg. 2019;14:37.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Humes DJ, Simpson J. Acute appendicitis. BMJ. 2006 Sep 9;333(7567):530-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Pastore PA, Loomis DM, Sauret J, et al. Appendicitis in pregnancy. J Am Board Fam Med. 2006 Nov-Dec;19(6):621-6.[Abstract][Full Text]
56. Parangi S, Levine D, Henry A, et al. Surgical gastrointestinal disorders during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 2007 Feb;193(2):223-32.[Abstract]
57. Karsenti D, Bacq Y, Brechot JF, et al. Serum amylase and lipase activities in normal pregnancy: a prospective case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2001 Mar;96(3):697-9.[Abstract]
58. Tenner S, Vege SS, Sheth SG, et al. American College of Gastroenterology guidelines: management of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2024 Mar 1;119(3):419-37.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Yang AL, McNabb-Baltar J. Hypertriglyceridemia and acute pancreatitis. Pancreatology. 2020 Jul;20(5):795-800.[Abstract]
60. Tang SJ, Rodriguez-Frias E, Singh S, et al. Acute pancreatitis during pregnancy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010 Jan;8(1):85-90.[Abstract][Full Text]
61. Shah KH, Simons RK, Holbrook T, et al. Trauma in pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcome. J Trauma. 1998 Jul;45(1):83-6.[Abstract]
62. Bljajic D, Ivanisevic M, Djelmis J, et al. Splenic rupture in pregnancy: traumatic or spontaneous event? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004 Jul 15;115(1):113-4.[Abstract]
63. Deb S, Hoo P, Chilaka V. Rectus sheath haematoma in pregnancy: a clinical challenge. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006 Nov;26(8):822-3.[Abstract]
64. Baxter JK, Weinstein L. HELLP syndrome: the state of the art. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2004 Dec;59(12):838-45.[Abstract]
65. Egerman RS, Sibai BM. HELLP syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1999 Jun;42(2):381-9.[Abstract]
66. Sibai BM, Taslimi MM, El-Nazer A, et al. Maternal-perinatal outcome associated with the syndrome of hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets in severe preeclampsia-eclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1986 Sep;155(3):501-9.[Abstract]
67. Ananth CV, Berkowitz GS, Savitz DA, et al. Placental abruption and adverse perinatal outcomes. JAMA. 1999 Nov 3;282(17):1646-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Gardner CS, Jaffe TA, Hertzberg BS, et al. The incarcerated uterus: a review of MRI and ultrasound imaging appearances. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2013 Jul;201(1):223-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Bildirici I, Esinler I, Deren O, et al. Hyperlipidemic pancreatitis during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002 May;81(5):468-70.[Abstract]
70. Indar AA, Beckingham IJ. Acute cholecystitis. BMJ. 2002 Sep 21;325(7365):639-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. Nasioudis D, Tsilimigras D, Economopoulos KP. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy: a systematic review of 590 patients. Int J Surg. 2016 Mar;27:165-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
72. Rios-Diaz AJ, Oliver EA, Bevilacqua LA, et al. Is it safe to manage acute cholecystitis nonoperatively during pregnancy? A nationwide analysis of morbidity according to management strategy. Ann Surg. 2020 Sep 1;272(3):449-56.[Abstract]
73. Hantouli MN, Droullard DJ, Nash MG, et al. Operative vs nonoperative management of acute cholecystitis during the different trimesters of pregnancy. JAMA Surg. 2024 Jan 1;159(1):28-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Cheng V, Matsushima K, Sandhu K, et al. Surgical trends in the management of acute cholecystitis during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 2021 Oct;35(10):5752-9.[Abstract]
75. Cheng V, Matsushima K, Ashbrook M, et al. Association between trimester and outcomes after cholecystectomy during pregnancy. J Am Coll Surg. 2021 Jul;233(1):29-37.e1.[Abstract]
76. Kumar SS, Collings AT, Wunker C, et al. SAGES guidelines for the use of laparoscopy during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 2024 Jun;38(6):2947-2963.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Hahn SA, Promes SB, Brown MD. American College of Emergency Physicians clinical policies subcommittee (Writing Committee) on early pregnancy. Clinical policy: critical Issues in the initial evaluation and management of patients presenting to the emergency department in early pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med. 2017 Feb;69(2):241-50.e20.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Wiles R, Hankinson B, Benbow E, et al. Making decisions about radiological imaging in pregnancy. BMJ. 2022 Apr 25;377:e070486.[Full Text]
79. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: right lower quadrant pain. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
80. Masselli G, Derchi L, McHugo J, et al. Acute abdominal and pelvic pain in pregnancy: ESUR recommendations. Eur Radiol. 2013 Dec;23(12):3485-500.[Abstract]
81. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage: diagnosis and initial management. Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
82. American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: acute pancreatitis. 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
83. Expert Panel on MR Safety, Kanal E, Barkovich AJ, et al. ACR guidance document on MR safe practices: 2013. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2013 Mar;37(3):501-30.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee opinion, no. 723: guidelines for diagnostic imaging during pregnancy and lactation. Oct 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
85. ACR Committee on Drugs and Contrast Media. ACR manual on contrast media. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
86. Ray JG, Vermeulen MJ, Bharatha A, et al. Association between MRI exposure during pregnancy and fetal and childhood outcomes. JAMA. 2016 Sep 6;316(9):952-61.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Lazarus E, Mayo-Smith WW, Mainiero MB, et al. CT in the evaluation of nontraumatic abdominal pain in pregnant women. Radiology. 2007 Sep;244(3):784-90.[Abstract]
88. Mackillop L, Williamson C. Liver disease in pregnancy. Postgrad Med J. 2011 Jan;196(1):4-12.[Abstract]
89. Milman N. Prepartum anaemia: prevention and treatment. Ann Hematol. 2008 Dec;87(12):949-59.[Abstract]
90. Boehlen F, Hohlfeld P, Extermann P, et al. Platelet count at term pregnancy: a reappraisal of the threshold. Obstet Gynecol. 2000 Jan;95(1):29-33.[Abstract]
91. Korgun ET, Demir R, Sedlmayr P, et al. Physiological leukocytosis during pregnancy is associated with changes in glucose transporter expression of maternal peripheral blood granulocytes and monocytes. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2002 Aug;48(2):110-6.[Abstract]
92. Han SN, Lotgerink A, Gziri MM, et al. Physiologic variations of serum tumor markers in gynecological malignancies during pregnancy: a systematic review. BMC Med. 2012 Aug 8;10:86.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Stothers L, Lee LM. Renal colic in pregnancy. J Urol. 1992 Nov;148(5):1383-7.[Abstract]
94. Lim HK, Bae SH, Seo GS. Diagnosis of acute appendicitis in pregnant women: value of sonography. AJR. 1992 Sep;159(3):539-42.[Abstract]
95. Katz DS, Klein MA, Ganson G, et al. Imaging of abdominal pain in pregnancy. Radiol Clin North Am. 2012;50(1):149-71.[Abstract]
96. Barloon TJ, Brown BP, Abu-Yousef MM, et al. Sonography of acute appendicitis in pregnancy. Abdom Imaging. 1995 Mar-Apr;20(2):149-51.[Abstract]
97. Cobben LP, Groot I, Haans L, et al. MRI for clinically suspected appendicitis during pregnancy. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2004 Sep;183(3):671-5.[Abstract]
98. Israel GM, Malguria N, McCarthy S, et al. MRI vs. ultrasound for suspected appendicitis during pregnancy. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2008 Aug;28(2):428-33.[Abstract]
99. Pedrosa I, Lafornara M, Pandharipande PV, et al. Pregnant patients suspected of having acute appendicitis: effect of MR imaging on negative laparotomy rate and appendiceal perforation rate. Radiology. 2009 Mar;250(3):749-57.[Abstract]
100. Tamir IL, Bongard FS, Klein SR. Acute appendicitis in the pregnant patient. Am J Surg. 1990 Dec;160(6):571-5.[Abstract]
101. Chang T, Lepanto L. Ultrasonography in the emergency setting. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 1992 Feb;10(1):1-25.[Abstract]
102. Hiatt JR, Hiatt JC, Williams RA, et al. Biliary disease in pregnancy: strategy for surgical management. Am J Surg. 1986 Feb;151(2):263-5.[Abstract]
103. Oto A, Ernst R, Ghulmiyyah L, et al. The role of MR cholangiopancreatography in the evaluation of pregnant patients with acute pancreaticobiliary disease. Br J Radiol. 2009 Apr;82(976):279-85.[Abstract][Full Text]
104. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria® right upper quadrant pain. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
105. Rompianesi G, Hann A, Komolafe O, et al. Serum amylase and lipase and urinary trypsinogen and amylase for diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 21;4(4):CD012010.[Abstract][Full Text]
106. Avanesov M, Löser A, Keller S, et al. Diagnosing acute pancreatitis-clinical and radiological characterisation of patients without threefold increase of serum lipase. Eur J Radiol. 2017 Oct;95:278-85.[Abstract]
107. Leppäniemi A, Tolonen M, Tarasconi A, et al. 2019 WSES guidelines for the management of severe acute pancreatitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2019 Jun 13;14:27.[Abstract][Full Text]
108. Working Group IAP/APA acute pancreatitis guidelines. IAP/APA evidence-based guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis. Pancreatology. 2013 Jul-Aug;13(4 suppl 2):e1-15.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Sibai BM. Diagnosis and management of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Jul;102(1):181-92.[Abstract]
110. Hammoud GM, Ibdah JA. Preeclampsia-induced liver dysfunction, HELLP syndrome, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken). 2014 Sep;4(3):69-73.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. Taylor AKL, Bartels HC, Brophy DP, et al. Imaging and video of late preterm delivery by midline laparotomy due to incarcerated uterus: a case report and literature review of a rare but morbid condition. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2024 Oct;167(1):88-91.[Abstract][Full Text]
