Highlights & Basics
- Yellow fever is a notifiable condition that is endemic in Central and South America, the Caribbean, and Africa.
- Infection may be asymptomatic or cause a biphasic, highly variable illness ranging from a nonspecific mild febrile illness to a potentially fatal hemorrhagic fever.
- Molecular or serologic testing confirms diagnosis in the context of clinical presentation, epidemiologic context, and vaccination history.
- As no specific antiviral therapy is available, treatment is supportive. A safe and effective vaccine is available.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Images
Citations
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book 2026: health information for international travel. Travel-associated infectious and diseases - yellow fever. Apr 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Yellow fever virus: clinical features and diagnosis of yellow fever. Nov 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
World Health Organization. WHO guidelines for clinical management of arboviral diseases. 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Staples JE, Bocchini JA Jr, Rubin L; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Yellow fever vaccine booster doses: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:647-650.[Abstract][Full Text]
- CDC: yellow book - maps
- WHO: countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination
- CDC: yellow fever travel vaccine
- PAHO/WHO: updated requirements for the International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP) with proof of vaccination against yellow fever
- CDC: travel health notices
- WHO: all updates for travellers
- WHO: yellow fever
- CDC: yellow fever virus
1. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - East, West and Central Africa region. Jan 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
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3. Monath TP. Yellow fever: an update. Lancet Infect Dis. 2001;1:11-20.[Abstract]
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book 2026: health information for international travel. Travel-associated infectious and diseases - yellow fever. Apr 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Yellow fever virus: clinical features and diagnosis of yellow fever. Nov 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
6. World Health Organization. WHO guidelines for clinical management of arboviral diseases. 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
7. World Health Organization. Yellow fever: fact sheet. Oct 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
8. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - African region (AFRO). Mar 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
9. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Kenya. Mar 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
10. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Nigeria. Oct 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
11. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Ghana. Dec 2021 [internet publication][Abstract][Full Text]
12. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - region of the Americas. May 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
13. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). Oct 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
14. Wilder-Smith A, Monath TP. Responding to the threat of urban yellow fever outbreaks. Lancet Infect Dis. 2017;17:248-250.[Abstract][Full Text]
15. Vasconcelos PF, Costa ZG, Travassos da Rosa ES, et al. Epidemic of jungle yellow fever in Brazil, 2000: implications of climatic alterations in disease spread. J Med Virol. 2001;65:598-604.[Abstract]
16. Franz DR, Jahrling PB, Friedlander AM, et al. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. JAMA. 1997;278:399-411.[Abstract]
17. Barnett ED. Yellow fever: epidemiology and prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar;44(6):850-6.[Full Text]
18. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Fatal yellow fever in a traveler returning from Amazonas, Brazil, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:324-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
19. Cornet JP, Huard M, Camicas JL, et al. Experimental transmission of the yellow fever virus by the tick Amblyomma variegatum (F.). Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales. 1982;75:136-140.[Abstract]
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Treatment and prevention of yellow fever. May 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Yellow fever vaccine information for healthcare providers. Jan 2025 [internet pubication].[Full Text]
22. Staples JE, Bocchini JA Jr, Rubin L; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Yellow fever vaccine booster doses: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:647-650.[Abstract][Full Text]
23. Gotuzzo E, Yactayo S, Córdova E. Efficacy and duration of immunity after yellow fever vaccination: systematic review on the need for a booster every 10 years. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013;89:434-444.[Abstract]
24. World Health Organization. Immunization, vaccines and biologicals: yellow fever vaccines. [internet publication].[Full Text]
25. Grobusch MP, Goorhuis A, Wieten RW, et al. Yellow fever revaccination guidelines change - a decision too feverish? Clin Microbiol Infect. 2013;19:885-886.[Abstract]
26. World Health Organization Department of Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals. Fractional dose yellow fever vaccine as a dose-sparing option for outbreak response. July 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
27. Casey RM, Harris JB, Ahuka-Mundeke S, et al. Immunogenicity of fractional-dose vaccine during a yellow fever outbreak - final report. N Engl J Med. 2019 Aug 1;381(5):444-454.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Roukens AHE, van Halem K, de Visser AW, et al. Long-term protection after fractional-dose yellow fever vaccination: follow-up study of a randomized, controlled, noninferiority trial. Ann Intern Med. 2018 Dec 4;169(11):761-5.[Abstract]
29. Kimathi D, Juan-Giner A, Bob NS, et al. Low-dose yellow fever vaccine in adults in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2025 Feb 20;392(8):788-97.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Thomas RE, Lorenzetti DL, Spragins W, et al. Active and passive surveillance of yellow fever vaccine 17D or 17DD-associated serious adverse events: Systematic review. Vaccine. 2011;29:4544-4555.[Abstract]
31. Farez MF, Correale J. Yellow fever vaccination and increased relapse rate in travelers with multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2011;68:1267-1271.[Abstract]
32. Traiber C, Coelho-Amaral P, Ritter VR, et al. Infant meningoencephalitis caused by yellow fever vaccine virus transmitted via breastmilk. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2011;87:269-272.[Abstract]
33. Barte H, Horvath TH, Rutherford GW. Yellow fever vaccine for patients with HIV infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(1):CD010929.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Edupuganti S, Eidex RB, Keyserling H, et al. A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of the 17D yellow fever virus vaccine given in combination with immune globulin or placebo: comparative viremia and immunogenicity. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013 Jan;88(1):172-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Nascimento Silva JR, Camacho LA, Siqueira MM, et al; Collaborative Group for the Study of Yellow Fever Vaccines. Mutual interference on the immune response to yellow fever vaccine and a combined vaccine against measles, mumps and rubella. Vaccine. 2011;29:6327-6334.[Abstract]
36. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Yellow fever vaccine (Stamaril) and fatal adverse reactions: extreme caution needed in people who may be immunosuppressed and those 60 years and older. April 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
37. World Health Organization. Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination (November 2022). Nov 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Yellow Book 2026: health information for international travel. Travel-associated infectious and diseases - mosquitoes, ticks, and other arthropods. Apr 2025 [internet publication].[Full Text]
39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS): yellow fever, 2019 case definition. Apr 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
40. World Health Organization. Laboratory manual for yellow fever. Jan 2024 [internet publication].[Full Text]
41. Gibney KB, Edupuganti S, Panella AJ, et al. Detection of anti-yellow fever virus immunoglobulin m antibodies at 3-4 years following yellow fever vaccination. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2012 Dec;87(6):1112-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
42. Drosten C, Göttig S, Schilling S, et al. Rapid detection and quantification of RNA of Ebola and Marburg viruses, Lassa virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Rift Valley fever virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus by real-time reverse transcription-PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:2323-2330.[Abstract][Full Text]
43. Domingo C, Patel P, Yillah J, et al. Advanced yellow fever virus genome detection in point-of-care facilities and reference laboratories. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:4054-4060.[Abstract]
44. World Health Organization. Operational guidance on the use of yellow fever assays in the context of surveillance. Dec 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
45. World Health Organization.Yellow fever: case definitions for public health surveillance. May 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
46. Monath TP. Treatment of yellow fever. Antiviral Res. 2008;78:116-124.[Abstract]
47. Pan American Health Organization. Clinical management of yellow fever in the region of the Americas. Experiences and recommendations for health services. 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
48. Zandi K, Amblard F, Amichai S, et al. Nucleoside analogs with antiviral activity against yellow fever virus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2019 Sep;63(9):e00889-19.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. de Freitas CS, Higa LM, Sacramento CQ, et al. Yellow fever virus is susceptible to sofosbuvir both in vitro and in vivo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2019 Jan;13(1):e0007072.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Rezende IM, Mendonça DC, Costa TA, et al. Sofosbuvir off-label treatment of yellow fever patients during an outbreak in Brazil, 2018: a cohort study. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2024 Jun;11(6):ofae312.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Julander JG, Bunyan E, Jordan R, et al. Remdesivir efficacy against yellow fever in a hamster model. Antiviral Res. 2022 Jul;203:105331.[Abstract]
52. Julander JG, Demarest JF, Taylor R, et al. An update on the progress of galidesivir (BCX4430), a broad-spectrum antiviral. Antiviral Res. 2021 Nov;195:105180.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. Ricciardi MJ, Rust LN, Pedreño-Lopez N, et al. Therapeutic neutralizing monoclonal antibody administration protects against lethal yellow fever virus infection. Sci Transl Med. 2023 Mar 29;15(689):eade5795.[Abstract][Full Text]
54. Borio L, Inglesby T, Peters CJ, et al; Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Hemorrhagic fever viruses as biological weapons: medical and public health management. JAMA. 2002;287:2391-2405.[Abstract]
55. World Health Organization. Yellow fever outbreak toolbox. Feb 2026 [internet publication].[Full Text]
56. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Adverse events associated with 17D-derived yellow fever vaccination: United States, 2001-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:989-993.[Abstract][Full Text]
57. Veit O, Niedrig M, Chapuis-Taillard C, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of yellow fever vaccination for 102 HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:659-666.[Abstract]
58. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). General recommendations on immunization - recommendations of the ACIP. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2011;60:1-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. ter Meulen J, Sakho M, Koulemou K, et al. Activation of the cytokine network and unfavorable outcome in patients with yellow fever. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:1821-1827.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Marianneau P, Georges-Courbot M, Deubel V. Rarity of adverse effects after 17D yellow-fever vaccination. Lancet. 2001;358:84-85.[Abstract]
61. Bossi P, Tegnell A, Baka A, et al. Bichat guidelines for the clinical management of haemorrhagic fever viruses and bioterrorism-related haemorrhagic fever viruses. Euro Surveill. 2004;9:E11-E12.[Abstract][Full Text]
