Yellow fever - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

Yellow fever is a notifiable condition that is endemic in South America, the Caribbean, and Africa. An ongoing outbreak in Brazil has raised the concern of local transmission in other countries, spread by infected returning travelers.
Infection may be asymptomatic or cause a biphasic, highly variable illness ranging from a nonspecific mild febrile illness to a potentially fatal hemorrhagic fever.
Molecular or serologic testing confirms diagnosis in the context of clinical presentation, epidemiologic context, and vaccination history.
As no specific antiviral therapy is available, treatment is supportive. A safe and effective vaccine is available.

Yellow fever virus particles viewed through a transmission electron microscope

CDC Public Health Image Library

Quick Reference

History & Exam
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Diagnostics Tests
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Treatment Options
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Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Images

A female Aedes aegypti mosquito
Types of transmission of yellow fever
Yellow fever virus particles viewed through a transmission electron microscope

Citations

Key Articles

World Health Organization. Yellow fever: fact sheet. May 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Staples JE, Bocchini JA Jr, Rubin L; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Yellow fever vaccine booster doses: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64:647-650.[Abstract][Full Text]
Pan American Health Organization; World Health Organization. Laboratory diagnosis of yellow fever virus infection. September 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]

Other Online Resources

CDC: yellow fever
WHO: yellow fever
CDC: yellow fever maps
WHO: countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination
WHO: disease outbreak news - yellow fever
CDC: yellow fever travel information
PAHO/WHO: updated requirements for the International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP) with proof of vaccination against yellow fever
CDC: travel health notices
WHO: international travel health latest updates

Referenced Articles

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3. World Health Organization. Yellow fever: fact sheet. May 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
4. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Mali. December 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
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6. World Health Organization. Disease outbreak news. Yellow fever - Nigeria. December 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
7. World Health Organization. Winning the war against yellow fever. November 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
8. World Health Organization. Weekly epidemiological record. Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, 2017. August 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
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11. World Health Organization. Yellow fever in the WHO African and American Regions, 2010. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2011;86:370-6.[Abstract]
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15. Barnett ED. Yellow fever: epidemiology and prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:850-856.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). General recommendations on immunization - recommendations of the ACIP. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2011;60:1-64.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Fatal yellow fever in a traveler returning from Amazonas, Brazil, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:324-325.[Abstract][Full Text]
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20. World Health Organization. Yellow fever-Brazil. April 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
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32. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. Yellow fever vaccine (Stamaril) and fatal adverse reactions: extreme caution needed in people who may be immunosuppressed and those 60 years and older. April 2019 [internet publication].[Full Text]
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34. Pan American Health Organization; World Health Organization. Laboratory diagnosis of yellow fever virus infection. September 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
35. Drosten C, Göttig S, Schilling S, et al. Rapid detection and quantification of RNA of Ebola and Marburg viruses, Lassa virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Rift Valley fever virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus by real-time reverse transcription-PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2002;40:2323-2330.[Abstract][Full Text]
36. Domingo C, Patel P, Yillah J, et al. Advanced yellow fever virus genome detection in point-of-care facilities and reference laboratories. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:4054-4060.[Abstract]
37. Barnett ED. Yellow fever: epidemiology and prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:850-856.[Abstract][Full Text]
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Notifiable Disease Surveillance System (NNDSS): yellow fever, 2019 case definition. Apr 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
39. World Health Organization. CDC and WHO launch trial version of a new ELISA: a kit, simpler and faster to perform. July 2018 [internet publication].
40. World Health Organization.Yellow fever: case definitions for public health surveillance. May 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
41. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Yellow fever: diagnostic testing. August 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
42. Monath TP. Treatment of yellow fever. Antiviral Res. 2008;78:116-124.[Abstract]
43. Huggins JW. Prospects for treatment of viral hemorrhagic fevers with ribavirin, a broad-spectrum antiviral drug. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11(suppl 4):S750-S761.[Abstract]
44. Arroyo JI, Apperson SA, Cropp CB, et al. Effect of human gamma interferon on yellow fever virus infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1988;38:647-650.[Abstract]
45. Julander JG. Experimental therapies for yellow fever. Antiviral Res. 2013;97:169-179.[Abstract]
46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Testing of selected patients with serious adverse events potentially related to yellow fever vaccination. August 2015 [internet publication].[Full Text]
47. Borio L, Inglesby T, Peters CJ, et al; Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Hemorrhagic fever viruses as biological weapons: medical and public health management. JAMA. 2002;287:2391-2405.[Abstract]
48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Adverse events associated with 17D-derived yellow fever vaccination: United States, 2001-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:989-993.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Veit O, Niedrig M, Chapuis-Taillard C, et al. Immunogenicity and safety of yellow fever vaccination for 102 HIV-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:659-666.[Abstract]
50. ter Meulen J, Sakho M, Koulemou K, et al. Activation of the cytokine network and unfavorable outcome in patients with yellow fever. J Infect Dis. 2004;190:1821-1827.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Marianneau P, Georges-Courbot M, Deubel V. Rarity of adverse effects after 17D yellow-fever vaccination. Lancet. 2001;358:84-85.[Abstract]
52. Franz DR, Jahrling PB, Friedlander AM, et al. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. JAMA. 1997;278:399-411.[Abstract]
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