Retinal vein occlusion - Symptoms, Causes, Images, and Treatment Options

Diseases

Highlights & Basics

Key Highlights

Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) frequently presents as sudden, painless, unilateral vision loss. Most affected patients are ages >65 years.
Hypertension, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, and glaucoma are major risk factors for the development of central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) or branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) in older patients.
Hypercoagulability and vasculitis are important risk factors for the development of CRVO or BRVO in younger patients.
Treatment is focused on vision-threatening complications such as macular edema and neovascularization. For an uncomplicated retinal vein occlusion, whether it is ischemic or nonischemic, management consists of close monitoring to detect complications and treatment of underlying risk factors.
Several randomized controlled trials support the use of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors and intravitreal corticosteroids for the treatment of macular edema in CRVO and BRVO.

Color photograph, right eye; central retinal vein occlusion; multiple intraretinal hemorrhages in each quadrant

From the personal library of Dr Aziz Khanifar

Quick Reference

History & Exam
- Key Factors
- Other Factors
More information...
Diagnostics Tests
More information...
Treatment Options
More information...

Definition

Epidemiology

Etiology

Pathophysiology

Images

Color photograph, right eye; central retinal vein occlusion; multiple intraretinal hemorrhages in each quadrant
Optical coherence tomogram, right eye; central retinal vein occlusion; large cystoid thickening throughout macula
Fluorescein angiogram, right eye; central retinal vein occlusion; delayed drainage of veins in each quadrant
Color photograph, left eye; branch retinal vein occlusion; multiple intraretinal images in quadrant of blocked vein
Fluorescein angiogram, left eye; branch retinal vein occlusion; delayed drainage of blocked vein superotemporally

Citations

Key Articles

Romano F, Lamanna F, Gabrielle PH, et al. Update on retinal vein occlusion. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2023 Mar-Apr;12(2):196-210.[Abstract][Full Text]
The Royal College of Ophthalmologists. Retinal vein occlusion guidelines. Feb 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
Flaxel CJ, Adelman RA, Bailey ST, et al. Retinal vein occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2020 Feb;127(2):P288-320.[Abstract][Full Text]
Nicholson L, Talks SJ, Amoaku W, et al. Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) guideline: executive summary. Eye (Lond). 2022 May;36(5):909-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
Shalchi Z, Mahroo O, Bunce C, et al. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor for macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 7;7:CD009510.[Abstract][Full Text]

Referenced Articles

1. Romano F, Lamanna F, Gabrielle PH, et al. Update on retinal vein occlusion. Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila). 2023 Mar-Apr;12(2):196-210.[Abstract][Full Text]
2. Song P, Xu Y, Zha M, et al. Global epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, incidence, and risk factors. J Glob Health. 2019 Jun;9(1):010427.[Abstract][Full Text]
3. The Royal College of Ophthalmologists. Retinal vein occlusion guidelines. Feb 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
4. Flaxel CJ, Adelman RA, Bailey ST, et al. Retinal vein occlusions preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2020 Feb;127(2):P288-320.[Abstract][Full Text]
5. Mitchell P, Smith W, Chang A. Prevalence and associations of retinal vein occlusion in Australia. The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996 Oct;114(10):1243-7.[Abstract]
6. Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 2000;98:133-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994 Apr 15;117(4):429-41.[Abstract]
8. Klein R, Moss SE, Meuer SM, et al. The 15-year cumulative incidence of retinal vein occlusion: The Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008 Apr;126(4):513-8.[Abstract]
9. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. Natural history and clinical management of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997 Apr;115(4):486-91. [Erratum in: Arch Ophthalmol 1997 Oct;115(10):1275.][Abstract]
10. Hayreh SS. Central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 1998 Dec 1;11(4):559-90.[Full Text]
11. Green WR, Chan CC, Hutchins GM, et al. Central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective histopathologic study of 29 eyes in 28 cases. Retina. 1981;1(1):27-55.[Abstract]
12. Zhao J, Sastry SM, Sperduto RD, et al. Arteriovenous crossing patterns in branch retinal vein occlusion. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Ophthalmology. 1993 Mar;100(3):423-8.[Abstract]
13. Weinberg D, Dodwell DG, Fern SA. Anatomy of arteriovenous crossings in branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990 Mar 15;109(3):298-302.[Abstract]
14. Duker JS, Brown GC. Anterior location of the crossing artery in branch retinal vein obstruction. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989 Jul;107(7):998-1000.[Abstract]
15. Aiello LP, Avery RL, Arrigg PG, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N Engl J Med. 1994 Dec 1;331(22):1480-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Dodson PM, Galton DJ, Hamilton AM, et al. Retinal vein occlusion and the prevalence of lipoprotein abnormalities. Br J Ophthalmol. 1982 Mar;66(3):161-4.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Williamson TH, Rumley A, Lowe GD. Blood viscosity, coagulation, and activated protein C resistance in central retinal vein occlusion: a population controlled study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1996 Mar;80(3):203-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
18. Ciardella AP, Yannuzzi LA, Freund KB, et al. Factor V Leiden, activated protein C resistance, and retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 1998;18(4):308-15.[Abstract]
19. Gutman FA. Evaluation of a patient with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1983 May;90(5):481-3.[Abstract]
20. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Hematologic abnormalities associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002 Mar;240(3):180-96.[Abstract]
21. Abu El-Asrar AM, Abdel Gader AG, Al-Amro S, et al. Hypercoagulable states in patients with retinal venous occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1998;95(2):133-43.[Abstract]
22. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Risk factors for branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1993 Sep 15;116(3):286-96.[Abstract]
23. Fong AC, Schatz H. Central retinal vein occlusion in young adults. Surv Ophthalmol. 1993 May-Jun;37(6):393-417. [Erratum in: Surv Ophthalmol 1993 Jul-Aug;38(1):88.][Abstract]
24. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Retina summary benchmarks - 2023. Dec 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
25. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Beri M, et al. Differentiation of ischemic from nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion during the early acute phase. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990;228(3):201-17.[Abstract]
26. Nicholson L, Talks SJ, Amoaku W, et al. Retinal vein occlusion (RVO) guideline: executive summary. Eye (Lond). 2022 May;36(5):909-12.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. US Preventative Services Task Force. Final recommendation statement - impaired visual acuity in older adults: screening. May 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
28. Chou R, Bougatsos C, Jungbauer R, et al. Screening for impaired visual acuity in older adults: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 2022 Jun 7;327(21):2129-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
29. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Referral of persons with possible eye diseases or injury - 2014. Apr 2014 [internet publication].[Full Text]
30. Brown DM, Heier JS, Clark WL, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 1-year results from the phase 3 COPERNICUS study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar;155(3):429-37.e7.[Abstract]
31. Campochiaro PA, Brown DM, Awh CC, et al. Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: twelve-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2011 Oct;118(10):2041-9.[Abstract]
32. Holz FG, Roider J, Ogura Y, et al. VEGF Trap-Eye for macular oedema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 6-month results of the phase III GALILEO study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar;97(3):278-84.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Epstein DL, Algvere PV, von Wendt G, et al. Bevacizumab for macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective, randomized, double-masked clinical study. Ophthalmology. 2012 Jun;119(6):1184-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Pai SA, Shetty R, Vijayan PB, et al. Clinical, anatomic, and electrophysiologic evaluation following intravitreal bevacizumab for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007 Apr;143(4):601-6.[Abstract]
35. Priglinger SG, Wolf AH, Kreutzer TC, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab injections for treatment of central retinal vein occlusion: six-month results of a prospective trial. Retina. 2007 Oct;27(8):1004-12.[Abstract]
36. Hsu J, Kaiser RS, Sivalingam A, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007 Oct;27(8):1013-9.[Abstract]
37. Kriechbaum K, Michels S, Prager F, et al. Intravitreal Avastin for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a prospective study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008 Apr;92(4):518-22.[Abstract]
38. Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Ip MS, et al; SCORE2 Investigator Group. Effect of bevacizumab vs aflibercept on visual acuity among patients with macular edema due to central retinal vein occlusion: the SCORE2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017 May 23;317(20):2072-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Park CH, Jaffe GJ, Fekrat S. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in eyes with cystoid macular edema associated with central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003 Sep;136(3):419-25.[Abstract]
40. Ip MS, Gottlieb JL, Kahana A, et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone for the treatment of macular edema associated with central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Aug;122(8):1131-6.[Abstract]
41. Bashshur ZF, Ma'luf RN, Allam S, et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone for the management of macular edema due to nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Aug;122(8):1137-40.[Abstract]
42. Williamson TH, O'Donnell A. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for cystoid macular edema in nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005 May;139(5):860-6.[Abstract]
43. Cekiç O, Chang S, Tseng JJ, et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone treatment for macular edema associated with central retinal vein occlusion and hemiretinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005 Oct-Nov;25(7):846-50.[Abstract]
44. Gregori NZ, Rosenfeld PJ, Puliafito CA, et al. One-year safety and efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the management of macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2006 Oct;26(8):889-95.[Abstract]
45. Goff MJ, Jumper JM, Yang SS, et al. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide treatment of macular edema associated with central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2006 Oct;26(8):896-901.[Abstract]
46. Ip MS, Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, et al. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with observation to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009 Sep;127(9):1101-14.[Abstract]
47. Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort R Jr, et al. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema related to branch or central retinal vein occlusion twelve-month study results. Ophthalmology. 2011 Dec;118(12):2453-60.[Abstract]
48. Gerding H, Monés J, Tadayoni R, et al. Ranibizumab in retinal vein occlusion: treatment recommendations by an expert panel. Br J Ophthalmol. 2015 Mar;99(3):297-304.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Hunter A, Williams M. Long-term outcomes for patients treated for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review. BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 2022 Jun;7(1):e001010.[Abstract][Full Text]
50. Cornish EE, Zagora SL, Spooner K, et al. Management of macular oedema due to retinal vein occlusion: an evidence-based systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 May-Jun;51(4):313-38.[Abstract][Full Text]
51. Ming S, Xie K, Yang M, et al. Comparison of intravitreal dexamethasone implant and anti-VEGF drugs in the treatment of retinal vein occlusion-induced oedema: a meta-analysis and systematic review. BMJ Open. 2020 Jun 28;10(6):e032128.[Abstract][Full Text]
52. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. Evaluation of grid pattern photocoagulation for macular edema in central vein occlusion: the central vein occlusion study group M report. Ophthalmology. 1995 Oct;102(10):1425-33.[Abstract]
53. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. A randomized clinical trial of early panretinal photocoagulation for ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group N report. Ophthalmology. 1995 Oct;102(10):1434-44.[Abstract]
54. Kahook MY, Schuman JS, Noecker RJ. Intravitreal bevacizumab in a patient with neovascular glaucoma. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2006 Mar-Apr;37(2):144-6.[Abstract]
55. Iliev ME, Domig D, Wolf-Schnurrbursch U, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of neovascular glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006 Dec;142(6):1054-6.[Abstract]
56. Batioglu F, Astam N, Ozmert E. Rapid improvement of retinal and iris neovascularization after a single intravitreal bevacizumab injection in a patient with central retinal vein occlusion and neovascular glaucoma. Int Ophthalmol. 2008 Feb;28(1):59-61.[Abstract]
57. Yazdani S, Hendi K, Pakravan M. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) injection for neovascular glaucoma. J Glaucoma. 2007 Aug;16(5):437-9.[Abstract]
58. Shalchi Z, Mahroo O, Bunce C, et al. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor for macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jul 7;7:CD009510.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Aflibercept for treating visual impairment caused by macular oedema after branch retinal vein occlusion. Sep 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
60. Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Bhisitkul RB, et al. Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: 12-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology. 2011 Aug;118(8):1594-602.[Abstract]
61. Heier JS, Campochiaro PA, Yau L, et al. Ranibizumab for macular edema due to retinal vein occlusions: long-term follow-up in the HORIZON trial. Ophthalmology. 2012 Apr;119(4):802-9.[Abstract]
62. Yilmaz T, Cordero-Coma M. Use of bevacizumab for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2012 Jun;250(6):787-93.[Abstract]
63. Spandau U, Wickenhäuser A, Rensch F, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for branch retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2007 Feb;85(1):118-9.[Abstract]
64. Rabena MD, Pieramici DJ, Castellarin AA, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2007 Apr-May;27(4):419-25.[Abstract]
65. Wu L, Arevalo JF, Roca JA, et al; Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group (PACORES). Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for treatment of macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: results from the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group at 6 months of follow-up. Retina. 2008 Feb;28(2):212-9.[Abstract]
66. Kreutzer TC, Alge CS, Wolf AH, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab for the treatment of macular oedema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008 Mar;92(3):351-5.[Abstract]
67. Scott IU, Ip MS, VanVeldhuisen PC, et al. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with standard care to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 6. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009 Sep;127(9):1115-28.[Abstract]
68. Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion. A randomized clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986 Jan;104(1):34-41.[Abstract]
69. The Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1984 Sep 15;98(3):271-82.[Abstract]
70. Tadayoni R, Waldstein SM, Boscia F, et al; BRIGHTER Study Group. Sustained benefits of ranibizumab with or without laser in branch retinal vein occlusion: 24-month results of the BRIGHTER study. Ophthalmology. 2017 Dec;124(12):1778-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
71. Scott IU, Vanveldhuisen PC, Oden NL, et al; SCORE Study Investigator Group. Baseline characteristics and response to treatment of participants with hemiretinal compared with branch retinal or central retinal vein occlusion in the Standard Care vs COrticosteroid for REtinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) Study: SCORE Study Report 14. Arch Ophthalmol. 2012 Dec;130(12):1517-24.[Abstract]
72. Pham B, Thomas SM, Lillie E, et al. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment for retinal conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2019 May 28;9(5):e022031.[Abstract][Full Text]
73. Varma R, Bressler NM, Suñer I, et al; BRAVO and CRUISE Study Groups. Improved vision-related function after ranibizumab for macular edema after retinal vein occlusion: results from the BRAVO and CRUISE trials. Ophthalmology. 2012 Oct;119(10):2108-18.[Abstract]
74. Pournaras JA, Nguyen C, Vaudaux JD, et al. Treatment of central retinal vein occlusion-related macular edema with intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin): preliminary results. Klin Monastbl Augenheilkd. 2008 May;225(5):397-400.[Abstract]
75. Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Oden NL, et al. Month 60 outcomes after treatment initiation with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy for macular edema due to central retinal or hemiretinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2022 Aug;240:330-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Lynch SS, Cheng CM. Bevacizumab for neovascular ocular diseases. Ann Pharmacother. 2007 Apr;41(4):614-25.[Abstract]
77. Subramanian ML, Ness S, Abedi G, et al. Bevacizumab vs ranibizumab for age-related macular degeneration : early results of a prospective, double-masked, randomized clinical trial. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009 Dec;148(6):875-82.e1.[Abstract]
78. Stepien KE, Rosenfeld PJ, Puliafito CA, et al. Comparison of intravitreal bevacizumab followed by ranibizumab for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Retina. 2009 Sep;29(8):1067-73.[Abstract]
79. Martin DF, Maguire MG, Fine SL, et al; Comparison of Age-related Macular Degeneration Treatments Trials (CATT) Research Group. Ranibizumab and bevacizumab for treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: two-year results. Ophthalmology. 2012 Jul;119(7):1388-98.[Abstract]
80. Landa G, Amde W, Doshi V, et al. Comparative study of intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) versus ranibizumab (Lucentis) in the treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmologica. 2009;223(6):370-5.[Abstract]
81. Chang TS, Kokame G, Casey R, et al. Short-term effectiveness of intravitreal bevacizumab versus ranibizumab injections for patients with neovascular age-related macular degeneration. Retina. 2009 Oct;29(9):1235-41.[Abstract]
82. Clark WL, Boyer DS, Heier JS, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: 52-week results of the VIBRANT study. Ophthalmology. 2016 Feb;123(2):330-6.[Abstract]
83. Hykin P, Prevost AT, Sivaprasad S, et al. Intravitreal ranibizumab versus aflibercept versus bevacizumab for macular oedema due to central retinal vein occlusion: the LEAVO non-inferiority three-arm RCT. Health Technol Assess. 2021 Jun;25(38):1-196.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. Gewaily D, Muthuswamy K, Greenberg PB. Intravitreal steroids versus observation for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Sep 9;(9):CD007324.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. ClinicalTrials.gov. The Standard care vs. Corticosteroid for REtinal vein occlusion (SCORE) study: two randomized trials to compare the efficacy and safety of intravitreal injection(s) of triamcinolone acetonide with standard care to treat macular edema (NCT00105027). Mar 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
86. American Academy of Ophthalmology. The use of biosimilars in ophthalmic practice - 2022. Jan 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
87. McAllister IL, Constable IJ. Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for treatment of nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995 Apr;113(4):456-62.[Abstract]
88. Fekrat S, Goldberg MF, Finkelstein D. Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for nonischemic central or branch retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998 Jan;116(1):43-52.[Abstract]
89. Opremcak EM, Bruce RA, Lomeo MD, et al. Radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion: a retrospective pilot study of 11 consecutive cases. Retina. 2001;21(5):408-15.[Abstract]
90. Garcia-Arumii J, Boixadera A, Martinez-Castillo V, et al. Chorioretinal anastomosis after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003 Oct;121(10):1385-91.[Abstract]
91. Weizer JS, Stinnett SS, Fekrat S. Radial optic neurotomy as treatment for central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003 Nov;136(5):814-9.[Abstract]
92. Elman MJ. Thrombolytic therapy for central retinal vein occlusion: results of a pilot study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1996;94:471-504.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Glacet-Bernard A, Kuhn D, Vine AK, et al. Treatment of recent onset central retinal vein occlusion with intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator: a pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000 Jun;84(6):609-13.[Abstract][Full Text]
94. Weiss JN. Treatment of central retinal vein occlusion by injection of tissue plasminogen activator into a retinal vein. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998 Jul;126(1):142-4.[Abstract]
95. Bynoe LA, Weiss JN. Retinal endovascular surgery and intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for central vein occlusion in young adults. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003 Mar;135(3):382-4.[Abstract]
96. Bynoe LA, Hutchins RK, Lazarus HS, et al. Retinal endovascular surgery for central retinal vein occlusion: initial experience of four surgeons. Retina. 2005 Jul-Aug;25(5):625-32.[Abstract]
97. Squizzato A, Manfredi E, Bozzato S, et al. Antithrombotic and fibrinolytic drugs for retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and a call for action. Thromb Haemost. 2010 Feb;103(2):271-6.[Abstract]
98. Feltgen N, Junker B, Agostini H, et al. Retinal endovascular lysis in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of a pilot study. Ophthalmology. 2007 Apr;114(4):716-23.[Abstract]
99. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of faricimab in participants with macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion (BALATON). ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04740905. Jul 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]
100. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of faricimab in participants with macular edema secondary to central retinal or hemiretinal vein occlusion (COMINO). ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT04740931.Aug 2023 [internet publication].[Full Text]