Highlights & Basics
- Acute cholecystitis is a major complication of cholelithiasis (i.e., gallstones); symptomatic gallstones are common before developing cholecystitis.
- Right upper quadrant (RUQ) pain lasting more than 3 to 6 hours and fever are common.
- RUQ tenderness, a distended RUQ mass, and positive Murphy sign are key examination findings.
- Ultrasound is the initial test of choice; hepatobiliary iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scanning and magnetic resonance imaging may be helpful in cases where diagnosis is unclear.
- Optimal treatment is early cholecystectomy.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
Other Factors
Diagnostics Tests
Treatment Options
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Images
Citations
Yokoe M, Hata J, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholecystitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):41-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
Gomi H, Solomkin JS, Schlossberg D, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):3-16.[Abstract][Full Text]
Mayumi T, Okamoto K, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: management bundles for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):96-100.[Abstract][Full Text]
Wakabayashi G, Iwashita Y, Hibi T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: surgical management of acute cholecystitis: safe steps in laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):73-86.[Abstract][Full Text]
1. Ziessman HA. Acute cholecystitis, biliary obstruction and biliary leakage. Semin Nucl Med. 2003 Oct;33(4):279-96.[Abstract]
2. Kimura Y, Takada T, Strasberg SM, et al. TG13 current terminology, etiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013 Jan;20(1):8-23.[Abstract][Full Text]
3. Iqbal S, Khajinoori M, Mooney B. A case report of acalculous cholecystitis due to Salmonella paratyphi B. Radiol Case Rep. 2018 Dec;13(6):1116-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
4. Howard RJ. Acute acalculous cholecystitis. Am J Surg. 1981 Feb;141(2):194-8.[Abstract]
5. Ryu JK, Ryu KH, Kim KH. Clinical features of acute acalculous cholecystitis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2003 Feb;36(2):166-9.[Abstract]
6. Benjelloun el B, Chbani L, Toughrai I, et al. A case report of acute acalculous cholecystitis due to Salmonella Paratyphi B complicated by biliary peritonitis. Pan Afr Med J. 2013;16:127.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Indar AA, Beckingham IJ. Acute cholecystitis. BMJ. 2002 Sep 21;325(7365):639-43.[Full Text]
8. Stinton LM, Shaffer EA. Epidemiology of gallbladder disease: cholelithiasis and cancer. Gut Liver. 2012 Apr;6(2):172-87.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Friedman GD. Natural history of asymptomatic and symptomatic gallstones. Am J Surg. 1993 Apr;165(4):399-404.[Abstract]
10. Freidman GD, Raviola CA, Fireman B. Prognosis of gallstones with mild or no symptoms: 25 years of follow-up in a health maintenance organization. J Clin Epidemiol. 1989;42(2):127-36.[Abstract]
11. McSherry CK, Ferstenberg H, Calhoun WF, et al. The natural history of diagnosed gallstone disease in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Ann Surg. 1985 Jul;202(1):59-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Abraham S, Rivero HG, Erlikh IV, et al. Surgical and nonsurgical management of gallstones. Am Fam Physician. 2014 May 15;89(10):795-802.[Abstract][Full Text]
13. Ko CW, Lee SP. Gastrointestinal disorders of the critically ill. Biliary sludge and cholecystitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2003 Jun;17(3):383-96.[Abstract]
14. Shah OJ, Zargar SA, Robbani I. Biliary ascariasis: a review: World J Surg. 2006 Aug;30(8):1500-6.[Abstract]
15. Claesson B, Holmlund D, Mätzsch T. Biliary microflora in acute cholecystitis and the clinical implications. Acta Chir Scand. 1984;150(3):229-37.[Abstract]
16. Kanafani ZA, Khalifé N, Kanj SS, et al. Antibiotic use in acute cholecystitis: practice patterns in the absence of evidence-based guidelines. J Infect. 2005 Aug;51(2):128-34.[Abstract]
17. Csendes A, Burdiles P, Maluenda F, et al. Simultaneous bacteriologic assessment of bile from gallbladder and common bile duct in control subjects and patients with gallstones and common duct stones. Arch Surg. 1996 Apr;131(4):389-94.[Abstract]
18. Laurila J, Syrjälä H, Laurila PA, et al. Acute acalculous cholecystitis in critically ill patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2004 Sep;48(8):986-91.[Abstract]
19. Kim A, Yang HR, Moon JS, et al. Epstein-Barr virus infection with acute acalculous cholecystitis. Pediatr Gastroenterol Hepatol Nutr. 2014 Mar;17(1):57-60.[Abstract][Full Text]
20. Shaffer EA. Gallstone disease: epidemiology of gallbladder stone disease. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;20(6):981-96.[Abstract]
21. Keus F, Broeders IA, van Laarhoven CJ. Gallstone disease: surgical aspects of symptomatic cholecystolithiasis and acute cholecystitis. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;20(6):1031-51.[Abstract]
22. Okada Y, Tanabe R, Mukaida M. Posttraumatic acute cholecystitis. Relationship to the initial trauma. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 1987 Jun;8(2):164-8.[Abstract]
23. Arnoldo BD, Hunt JL, Purdue GF. Acute cholecystitis in burn patients. J Burn Care Res. 2006 Mar-Apr;27(2):170-3.[Abstract]
24. Aune D, Vatten LJ. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of gallbladder disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Diabetes Complications. 2016 Mar;30(2):368-73.[Abstract]
25. Takayasu K, Moriyama N, Muramatsu Y, et al. Gallbladder infarction after hepatic artery embolization. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1985 Jan;144(1):135-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
26. Stokes CS, Gluud LL, Casper M, et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid and diets higher in fat prevent gallbladder stones during weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014 Jul;12(7):1090-100.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Williams CI, Shaffer EA. Gallstone disease: current therapeutic practice. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol. 2008 Apr;11(2):71-7.[Abstract]
28. Aune D, Leitzmann M, Vatten LJ. Physical activity and the risk of gallbladder disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. J Phys Act Health. 2016 Jul;13(7):788-95.[Abstract]
29. European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL). EASL clinical practice guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of gallstones. J Hepatol. 2016 Jul;65(1):146-81.[Full Text]
30. Venneman NG, Besselink MG, Keulemans YC, et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid exerts no beneficial effect in patients with symptomatic gallstones awaiting cholecystectomy. Hepatology. 2006 Jun;43(6):1276-83.[Abstract][Full Text]
31. Trowbridge RL, Rutkowski NK, Shojania KG. Does this patient have acute cholecystitis? JAMA. 2003 Jan 1;289(1):80-6.[Abstract]
32. Bellows CF, Berger DH, Crass RA. Management of gallstones. Am Fam Physician. 2005 Aug 15;72(4):637-42.[Abstract][Full Text]
33. Miura F, Takada T, Strasberg SM, et al. TG13 flowchart for the management of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2013 Jan;20(1):47-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Okamoto K, Suzuki K, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: flowchart for the management of acute cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):55-72.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Yokoe M, Hata J, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholecystitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):41-54.[Abstract][Full Text]
36. Pisano M, Allievi N, Gurusamy K, et al. 2020 World Society of Emergency Surgery updated guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute calculus cholecystitis. World J Emerg Surg. 2020 Nov 5;15(1):61.[Abstract][Full Text]
37. Bonomo RA, Chow AW, Edwards MS, et al. 2024 clinical practice guideline update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America on complicated intra-abdominal infections: risk assessment, diagnostic imaging, and microbiological evaluation in adults, children, and pregnant people. Clin Infect Dis. 2024 Jul 5:ciae346.[Abstract][Full Text]
38. Bonomo RA, Edwards MS, Abrahamian FM, et al. 2024 clinical practice guideline update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America on complicated intra-abdominal infections: diagnostic imaging of suspected acute cholecystitis and acute cholangitis in adults, children, and pregnant people. Clin Infect Dis. 2024 Jul 4:ciae349.[Abstract][Full Text]
39. Ralls PW, Colletti PM, Lapin SA, et al. Real-time sonography in suspected acute cholecystitis. Prospective evaluation of primary and secondary signs. Radiology. 1985 Jun;155(3):767-71.[Abstract]
40. American College of Radiology and Society for Pediatric Radiology. ACR-ACNM-SNMMI-SPR practice parameter for the performance of hepatobiliary scintigraphy. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
41. Watanabe Y, Nagayama M, Okumura A, et al. MR imaging of acute biliary disorders. Radiographics. 2007 Mar-Apr;27(2):477-95.[Abstract]
42. Bortoff GA, Chen MY, Ott DJ, et al. Gallbladder stones: imaging and intervention. Radiographics. 2000 May-Jun;20(3):751-66.[Abstract]
43. Simundic AM, Bölenius K, Cadamuro J, et al. Joint EFLM-COLABIOCLI recommendation for venous blood sampling. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2018;56(12):2015-38.[Abstract]
44. Tomida S, Abei M, Yamaguchi T, et al. Long term ursodeoxycholic acid therapy is associated with reduced risk of biliary pain and acute cholecystitis in patients with gallbladder stones: a cohort analysis. Hepatology. 1999 Jul;30(1):6-13.[Abstract]
45. Shea JA, Berlin JA, Escarce JJ, et al. Revised estimates of diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity in suspected biliary tract disease. Arch Intern Med. 1994 Nov 28;154(22):2573-81.[Abstract]
46. Kiewiet JJ, Leeuwenburgh MM, Bipat S, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic performance of imaging in acute cholecystitis. Radiology. 2012 Sep;264(3):708-20.[Abstract]
47. Menu Y, Vuillerme M. Non-traumatic abdominal emergencies: imaging and intervention in acute biliary conditions. Eur Radiol. 2002 Oct;12(10):2397-406.[Abstract]
48. Helton WS, Espat NJ. Cholecystitis and cholangitis. Curr Treat Options Infect Dis. 2001;3:387-400.
49. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: right upper quadrant pain. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
50. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: jaundice. 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
51. American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: acute nonlocalized abdominal pain and fever. 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
52. Brazzelli M, Cruickshank M, Kilonzo M, et al. Clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of cholecystectomy compared with observation/conservative management for preventing recurrent symptoms and complications in adults presenting with uncomplicated symptomatic gallstones or cholecystitis: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2014 Aug;18(55):1-101.[Abstract][Full Text]
53. van Dijk AH, Wennmacker SZ, de Reuver PR, et al. Restrictive strategy versus usual care for cholecystectomy in patients with gallstones and abdominal pain (SECURE): a multicentre, randomised, parallel-arm, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2019 Jun 8;393(10188):2322-30.[Abstract]
54. Loozen CS, van Ramshorst B, van Santvoort HC, et al. Early cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis in the elderly population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dig Surg. 2017;34(5):371-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
55. Overby DW, Apelgren KN, Richardson W, et al. SAGES guidelines for the clinical application of laparoscopic biliary tract surgery. Surg Endosc. 2010 Oct;24(10):2368-86.[Full Text]
56. Wu XD, Tian X, Liu MM, et al. Meta-analysis comparing early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 2015 Oct;102(11):1302-13. [Abstract]
57. Roulin D, Saadi A, Di Mare L, et al. Early versus delayed cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis, are the 72 hours still the rule? A randomized trial. Ann Surg. 2016 Nov;264(5):717-22.[Abstract]
58. Lyu Y, Cheng Y, Wang B, et al. Early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis: an up-to-date meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Surg Endosc. 2018 Dec;32(12):4728-41.[Abstract]
59. Lo CM, Liu CL, Fan ST, et al. Prospective randomized study of early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis. Ann Surg. 1998 Apr;227(4):461-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Lai PS, Kwong KH, Leung KL, et al. Randomized trial of early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 1998 Jun;85(6):764-7.[Abstract]
61. Song GM, Bian W, Zeng XT, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis: early or delayed? Evidence from a systematic review of discordant meta-analyses. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016 Jun;95(23):e3835.[Abstract][Full Text]
62. Cao AM, Eslick GD, Cox MR. Early laparoscopic cholecystectomy is superior to delayed acute cholecystitis: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Surg Endosc. 2016 Mar;30(3):1172-82.[Abstract]
63. Khalid S, Iqbal Z, Bhatti AA. Early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. 2017 Oct-Dec;29(4):570-3.[Abstract][Full Text]
64. Jones MW, Deppen JG. Open cholecystectomy. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Apr 24.[Abstract][Full Text]
65. Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract. SSAT patient care guidelines. Treatment of gallstone and gallbladder disease. J Gastrointest Surg. 2007 Sep;11(9):1222-4.
66. Bouassida M, Chtourou MF, Charrada H, et al. The severity grading of acute cholecystitis following the Tokyo Guidelines is the most powerful predictive factor for conversion from laparoscopic cholecystectomy to open cholecystectomy. J Visc Surg. 2017 Sep;154(4):239-43.[Abstract]
67. de Goede B, Klitsie PJ, Hagen SM, et al. Meta-analysis of laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy for patients with liver cirrhosis and symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. Br J Surg. 2013 Jan;100(2):209-16.[Abstract]
68. Picchio M, De Cesare A, Di Filippo A, et al. Prophylactic drainage after laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Updates Surg. 2019 Jun;71(2):247-54.[Abstract]
69. Barak O, Elazary R, Appelbaum L, et al. Conservative treatment for acute cholecystitis: clinical and radiographic predictors of failure. Isr Med Assoc J. 2009 Dec;11(12):739-43.[Abstract]
70. Byrne MF, Suhocki P, Mitchell RM, et al. Percutaneous cholecystostomy in patients with acute cholecystitis: experience of 45 patients at a US referral center. J Am Coll Surg. 2003 Aug;197(2):206-11.[Abstract]
71. Welschbillig-Meunier K, Pessaux P, Lebigot J, et al. Percutaneous cholecystostomy for high-risk patients with acute cholecystitis. Surg Endosc. 2005 Sep;19(9):1256-9.[Abstract]
72. Davis CA, Landercasper J, Gundersen LH, et al. Effective use of percutaneous cholecystostomy in high-risk surgical patients: techniques, tube management, and results. Arch Surg. 1999 Jul;134(7):727-31.[Abstract][Full Text]
73. Hatzidakis AA, Prassopoulos P, Petinarakis I, et al. Acute cholecystitis in high-risk patients: percutaneous cholecystostomy vs conservative treatment. Eur Radiol. 2002 Jul;12(7):1778-84.[Abstract]
74. Gurusamy KS, Rossi M, Davidson BR. Percutaneous cholecystostomy for high-risk surgical patients with acute calculous cholecystitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Aug 12;(8):CD007088.[Abstract][Full Text]
75. Ambe PC, Kaptanis S, Papadakis M, et al. The treatment of critically ill patients with acute cholecystitis. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2016 Aug 22;113(33-4):545-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
76. Loozen CS, van Santvoort HC, van Duijvendijk P, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy versus percutaneous catheter drainage for acute cholecystitis in high risk patients (CHOCOLATE): multicentre randomised clinical trial. BMJ. 2018 Oct 8;363:k3965.[Abstract][Full Text]
77. Bakkaloglu H, Yanar H, Guloglu R, et al. Ultrasound guided percutaneous cholecystostomy in high-risk patients for surgical intervention. World J Gastroenterol. 2006 Nov 28;12(44):7179-82.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Gomi H, Solomkin JS, Schlossberg D, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):3-16.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Rusu A, Munteanu AC, Arbănași EM, et al. Overview of side-effects of antibacterial fluoroquinolones: new drugs versus old drugs, a step forward in the safety profile? Pharmaceutics. 2023 Mar 1;15(3):804.[Abstract][Full Text]
80. van Dijk AH, de Reuver PR, Tasma TN, et al. Systematic review of antibiotic treatment for acute calculous cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 2016 Jun;103(7):797-811.[Abstract]
81. Solomkin JS, Dellinger EP, Bohnen JM, et al. The role of oral antimicrobials for the management of intra-abdominal infections. New Horiz. 1998 May;6(2 suppl):S46-52.[Abstract]
82. Gurusamy K, Samraj K, Gluud C, et al. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the safety and effectiveness of early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 2010 Feb;97(2):141-50.[Abstract][Full Text]
83. Mayumi T, Okamoto K, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: management bundles for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):96-100.[Abstract][Full Text]
84. Wakabayashi G, Iwashita Y, Hibi T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: surgical management of acute cholecystitis: safe steps in laparoscopic cholecystectomy for acute cholecystitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):73-86.[Abstract][Full Text]
85. Gutt CN, Encke J, Köninger J, et al. Acute cholecystitis: early versus delayed cholecystectomy, a multicenter randomized trial (ACDC study, NCT00447304). Ann Surg. 2013 Sep;258(3):385-93.[Abstract]
86. Loozen CS, Kortram K, Kornmann VN, et al. Randomized clinical trial of extended versus single-dose perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis for acute calculous cholecystitis. Br J Surg. 2017 Jan;104(2):e151-7.[Abstract]
87. Regimbeau JM, Fuks D, Pautrat K, et al; FRENCH Study Group. Effect of postoperative antibiotic administration on postoperative infection following cholecystectomy for acute calculous cholecystitis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014 Jul;312(2):145-54. [Abstract][Full Text]
88. Kim EY, Yoon YC, Choi HJ, et al. Is there a real role of postoperative antibiotic administration for mildmoderate acute cholecystitis? A prospective randomized controlled trial. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2017 Oct;24(10):550-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
89. Hajibandeh S, Popova P, Rehman S. Extended postoperative antibiotics versus no postoperative antibiotics in patients undergoing emergency cholecystectomy for acute calculous cholecystitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Innov. 2019 Aug;26(4):485-96.[Abstract]
90. Irani SS, Sharzehi K, Siddiqui UD. AGA clinical practice update on role of EUS-guided gallbladder drainage in acute cholecystitis: commentary. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2023 May;21(5):1141-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
91. Mori Y, Itoi T, Baron TH, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: management strategies for gallbladder drainage in patients with acute cholecystitis (with videos). J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018 Jan;25(1):87-95.[Abstract][Full Text]
92. Ahmed O, Rogers AC, Bolger JC, et al. Meta-analysis of outcomes of endoscopic ultrasound-guided gallbladder drainage versus percutaneous cholecystostomy for the management of acute cholecystitis. Surg Endosc. 2018 Apr;32(4):1627-35.[Abstract]
93. Luk SW, Irani S, Krishnamoorthi R, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided gallbladder drainage versus percutaneous cholecystostomy for high risk surgical patients with acute cholecystitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Endoscopy. 2019 Aug;51(8):722-32.[Abstract][Full Text]
94. Mohan BP, Khan SR, Trakroo S, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided gallbladder drainage, transpapillary drainage, or percutaneous drainage in high risk acute cholecystitis patients: a systematic review and comparative meta-analysis. Endoscopy. 2020 Feb;52(2):96-106.[Abstract][Full Text]
95. Fabbri C, Binda C, Sbrancia M, et al. Determinants of outcomes of transmural EUS-guided gallbladder drainage: systematic review with proportion meta-analysis and meta-regression. Surg Endosc. 2022 Nov;36(11):7974-85.[Abstract]
96. Podboy A, Yuan J, Stave CD, et al. Comparison of EUS-guided endoscopic transpapillary and percutaneous gallbladder drainage for acute cholecystitis: a systematic review with network meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2021 Apr;93(4):797-804.[Abstract]
97. Hemerly MC, de Moura DTH, do Monte Junior ES, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided cholecystostomy versus percutaneous cholecystostomy (PTC) in the management of acute cholecystitis in patients unfit for surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Endosc. 2023 Apr;37(4):2421-38.[Abstract]
98. Kusminsky RE. Complications of central venous catheterization. J Am Coll Surg. 2007 Apr;204(4):681-96.[Abstract]
99. McGee DC, Gould MK. Preventing complications of central venous catheterization. N Engl J Med. 2003 Mar 20;348(12):1123-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
100. Smith RN, Nolan JP. Central venous catheters. BMJ. 2013 Nov 11;347:f6570.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. Reich DL. Monitoring in anesthesia and perioperative care. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
102. Abbott Northwestern Hospital Internal Medicine Residency. Internal jugular central venous line. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
103. Bishop L, Dougherty L, Bodenham A, et al. Guidelines on the insertion and management of central venous access devices in adults. Int J Lab Hematol. 2007 Aug;29(4):261-78.[Abstract]
104. Practice guidelines for central venous access 2020: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Central Venous Access. Anesthesiology. 2020 Jan;132(1):8-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
105. Fletcher SJ, Bodenham AR. Safe placement of central venous catheters: where should the tip of the catheter lie? Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):188-91.[Abstract]
106. Gibson F, Bodenham A. Misplaced central venous catheters: applied anatomy and practical management. Br J Anaesth. 2013 Mar;110(3):333-46.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Schuster M, Nave H, Piepenbrock S, et al. The carina as a landmark in central venous catheter placement. Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):192-4.[Abstract]
108. Webster J, Osborne S, Rickard CM, et al. Clinically-indicated replacement versus routine replacement of peripheral venous catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jan 23;(1):CD007798.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Gangemi A, Danilkowicz R, Elli FE, et al. Could ICG-aided robotic cholecystectomy reduce the rate of open conversion reported with laparoscopic approach? A head to head comparison of the largest single institution studies. J Robot Surg. 2017 Mar;11(1):77-82. [Abstract]
110. Lim C, Bou Nassif G, Lahat E, et al. Single-incision robotic cholecystectomy is associated with a high rate of trocar-site infection. Int J Med Robot. 2017 Dec;13(4).[Abstract]
Key Articles
Referenced Articles
Sign in to access our clinical decision support tools