Overview of pregnancy complications

Related Diseases & Conditions

• Routine prenatal care

  Summary

  Prenatal care is a key component of a healthy pregnancy. Regular prenatal care helps to identify and treat complications and to promote healthy behaviors.
• Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy

  Summary

  Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy (NVP), commonly referred to as morning sickness, typically begins between the fourth and eighth week after the last menstrual period. It is characterized by nausea and vomiting that occurs more frequently during the morning hours, and typically resolves in the second trimester. NVP occurs in up to 50% to 80% of pregnant women.[1]​ Hyperemesis gravidarum is the most severe form of NVP and is characterized by persistent vomiting, volume depletion, ketosis, electrolyte disturbances, and weight loss.
• Folate deficiency

  Summary

  Pregnant and lactating women have an increased folate demand, which can result in folate deficiency. Folate deficiency during pregnancy is strongly associated with fetal neural tube defects, 70% of which can be prevented by increased folic acid supplementation.[2] [3] [4]​ Symptomatic inquiry should cover symptoms associated with anemia, including fatigue, palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, headaches, jaundice, loss of appetite, and weight loss.
• Iron deficiency anemia

  Summary

  In pregnant women, iron deficiency anemia is defined as hemoglobin <110 g/L (11 g/dL).[5] Symptoms include fatigue, low energy levels, and dyspnea on exertion. Pregnancy increases demand for iron with a net loss of approximately 580 mg of iron during the gestation period, with the highest loss occurring in the third trimester.[6] [7] Iron deficiency during the first 2 trimesters is associated with an increase in preterm delivery and low birth-weight babies.[8]
• Miscarriage

  Summary

  Defined as an involuntary, spontaneous loss of a pregnancy before 20-24 completed weeks (gestation varies, depending on country).[9] It is associated with unprovoked vaginal bleeding with or without suprapubic pain. Miscarriage occurs in up to one third of pregnancies.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14]​ Key risk factors include older parental age, uterine malformation, bacterial vaginosis, and thrombophilias. Serial serum beta hCG titers and a transvaginal ultrasound scan aid in diagnosis.
• Evaluation of recurrent miscarriage

  Summary

  More than one-half of women with recurrent miscarriage have unexplained or idiopathic recurrent miscarriage, where no cause or association can be identified.[15] [16] Increasing maternal age and number of previous miscarriages increase the risk of further miscarriages. Definitive associations of recurrent miscarriage include chromosomal abnormalities, antiphospholipid syndrome, certain structural uterine abnormalities such as cervical incompetence, and certain thrombophilias.
• Ectopic pregnancy

  Summary

  A fertilized ovum implanting and maturing outside of the uterine endometrial cavity, with the most common site being the fallopian tube (97%), followed by the ovary (3.2%) and the abdomen (1.3%).[17] Classic symptoms and signs are pain, vaginal bleeding, and amenorrhea.[18] Global rates of ectopic pregnancy are 1.1% in the UK, 1.23% in the US, 1.49% in Norway, and 1.62% in Australia.[19] [20] [21] [22]​​​​​ Red flags suggesting possible rupture include unstable vital signs (orthostatic changes), blood in the vaginal vault, or signs of intraperitoneal bleeding (e.g., acute abdomen, shoulder pain, cervical motion tenderness). Risk increases with prior ectopic pregnancy, tubal surgery, history of sexually transmitted infections, smoking, in vitro fertilization, or if pregnant despite intrauterine device usage.
• Placenta previa

  Summary

  Classified as placenta praevia if the placenta is directly covering the cervical os, or as low-lying placenta if the placental edge is <2 cm from the cervical os. Occurs in 0.3% to 0.5% of pregnancies worldwide.[23] [24]​​​[25]​ Symptomatic placenta previa typically presents as second or third trimester painless vaginal bleeding.[26] [27] [28]​​ Risk factors include previous uterine scarring (most commonly due to prior cesarean section), advanced maternal age, smoking, previous multiple pregnancies/short interpregnancy intervals or miscarriages/induced abortions, prior placenta previa, infertility treatment, and illicit drug use.
• Molar pregnancies

  Summary

  Hydatidiform moles are chromosomally abnormal pregnancies that have the potential to become malignant (gestational trophoblastic neoplasia). Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) includes tumors of fetal tissues, including hydatidiform moles, arising from placental trophoblasts. The most common presenting symptom is vaginal bleeding and patients typically present in the first trimester. Women with molar pregnancies are commonly at the extremes of reproductive life (younger than 20 years of age or over 35 years of age), and may relate a history of prior GTD.[29] [30]
• Evaluation of abdominal pain in pregnancy

  Summary

  Early pregnancy causes of abdominal pain include ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Late pregnancy causes include preterm labor, chorioamnionitis, uterine rupture, placental abruption, HELLP syndrome, and acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Gynecologic causes include adnexal masses and fibroids. Other etiologies can be urologic (e.g., urinary tract infections [UTIs], acute pyelonephritis, nephrolithiasis, and hydronephrosis), gastrointestinal (e.g., appendicitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, and intestinal obstruction), trauma-related, and musculoskeletal.
• Gestational hypertension

  Summary

  Defined by a blood pressure of ≥140/90 mmHg on two occasions (at least 4 hours apart) during pregnancy after 20 weeks gestation in a previously normotensive woman, without the presence of proteinuria (<300 mg in 24 hours) or other clinical features suggestive of preeclampsia (thrombocytopenia, impaired renal or kidney function, pulmonary edema, or new-onset headache).[31] [32]​​​ Hypertension is the most frequently identified medical problem during pregnancy. Women with gestational hypertension are usually asymptomatic. Risk factors include nulligravidity, black or Hispanic ethnicity, multiple pregnancies, obesity, and mothers who were born small for their gestational age.​​​​​​ Gestational hypertension increases the risk of macrosomia, intrauterine growth restriction, stillbirth, cesarean delivery, and admission of the neonate to the intensive care unit. Coexistence of gestational diabetes mellitus further increases the risk.[33]
• Gestational diabetes mellitus

  Summary

  Hyperglycemia in pregnancy that is below the diagnostic thresholds for diabetes mellitus.[34] [35]​​​​ Develops during pregnancy and is usually diagnosed following assessment for risk factors followed by elevated plasma glucose levels on glucose tolerance testing. It is estimated that in 2021, 16.7% of pregnancies worldwide that resulted in live births were affected by some form of hyperglycemia.[36]​ Risk factors include advanced maternal age (>40 years), previous gestational diabetes mellitus, previous macrosomic baby, elevated BMI, polycystic ovarian syndrome, nonwhite ancestry, family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, lack of exercise, and prior gestational diabetes mellitus.[37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45]​​​

  Pregnancy can also be complicated by established type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus.
• Urinary tract infections in women

  Summary

  An infection of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. UTIs in pregnancy are considered to be complicated UTIs. Lifetime incidence of UTIs is 50% to 60% in adult women. Pregnant women should be screened for asymptomatic bacteriuria as it has been associated with higher rates of pyelonephritis, premature labor, and fetal mortality.[1]​
• Vaginitis

  Summary

  Inflammation of the vagina due to changes in the composition of the vaginal microenvironment from infection, irritants, or from hormonal deficiency (e.g., atrophic vaginitis). Bacterial vaginosis continues to be a leading cause of vaginitis; other common infectious causes include trichomoniasis and candidiasis. Vaginitis is the most common gynecological diagnosis in the primary care setting.[46]​ Common symptoms include discharge, pruritus, and dyspareunia. Bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis have been associated with preterm delivery, low birth weight, and premature rupture of membranes.[47] [48]
• Listeriosis

  Summary

  A food-borne infection caused by a motile, nonspore-forming, gram-positive bacillus. Pregnant women are advised to avoid raw unwashed vegetables, raw or undercooked meat (poultry, beef, pork), leftover food, soft cheeses, and unpasteurized milk or its products.[49] [50] [51] [52]​​​​​ The pathogen has a predilection for neonates (ages <1 month), adults (especially >50 years), pregnant women (30% of all patients), and immunocompromised people (with HIV/AIDS, cancer, hematological malignancies, those undergoing corticosteroid treatment, or transplant recipients).[49] [53] [54]​ Pregnant women may have flu-like symptoms (lethargy, fever, arthralgias, myalgias, rigors, fatigue, diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain).[50]
• Toxoplasmosis

  Summary

  Parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. Spreads through food or water contaminated with oocysts, infected meat, or contact with oocysts from feline feces. Transplacental transmission results only when a seronegative woman acquires toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Primary infection during pregnancy is often asymptomatic in the mother, but can result in fetal death and severe congenital abnormalities (e.g., intellectual disability and blindness). National surveys in France have shown a decreasing T gondii seroprevalence among pregnant women, with models estimating a decrease in prevalence from 76% in 1980 to 27% in 2020.[55]​ Fetal infections in the third trimester are often asymptomatic at birth, but the majority of these congenitally infected children (up to 85%) develop retinitis, central nervous system problems (e.g., learning disabilities or seizures) or delayed growth months to years later.[56] Routine prenatal screening for T gondii is not performed in the US. However, in some countries (e.g., France) it is recommended.
• Cytomegalovirus infection

  Summary

  Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a ubiquitous beta-herpes virus that infects the majority of humans and establishes a state of lifelong latency in host cells. Periodic subclinical reactivations are controlled by a functioning immune system. The immunologically-naive fetus is at risk of congenital CMV disease and its complications, such as hearing loss and neurologic deficits. It is the most common congenital infective cause of sensorineural hearing loss and intellectual disability.[57]​ Pregnant mothers should wash their hands regularly and thoroughly to prevent primary infection (which is usually asymptomatic).
• Rubella

  Summary

  Maternal infection in pregnancy, particularly early in gestation, may cause spontaneous abortion, fetal death, or a wide spectrum of anatomic and laboratory anomalies (congenital rubella syndrome). In the World Health Organization European Region, rubella incidence declined from 234.9 cases per million population in 2005 to 0.7 cases per million by 2019.[58]​ Specialty consultation is strongly recommended for pregnant women with exposure to rubella.
• Zika virus

  Summary

  A mild, usually self-limited infection when symptomatic (about 20% of infections) caused by the Zika virus. Characteristic clinical findings include fever, an itchy maculopapular (sometimes morbilliform) rash, arthralgia, and nonpurulent conjunctivitis.[59] No differences in clinical presentation have been described between pregnant women and nonpregnant patients. Data from the US Zika Pregnancy and Infant Registry found that among pregnancies with confirmed infection, the frequency of any Zika-associated birth defect was higher among those with first (8%) and second (6%) trimester infections compared with third trimester infections (3.8%).[60]

  Congenital Zika syndrome is a pattern of congenital anomalies (i.e., microcephaly, intracranial calcifications or other brain anomalies, or eye anomalies, among others) in infants associated with Zika virus infection during pregnancy.[61] [62] [63] [64]
• HIV infection in pregnancy

  Summary

  It is recommended that all pregnant women be tested for HIV infection as early as possible in pregnancy.[65] All pregnant women with HIV should receive antiretroviral therapy (ART), as early as possible in the pregnancy, regardless of CD4 count or viral load. Approximately 1.3 million (range 1 to 1.6 million) women with HIV worldwide were pregnant in 2021, of whom an estimated 81% received ART.[66]​ Untreated, the risk of perinatal transmission of HIV is between 15% and 45%, but can be lowered to 1% or less with a combination of preventative measures including ART for mothers and prophylaxis for neonates.[67]
• Group B streptococcal infection

  Summary

  Group B streptococci (GBS), also known as Streptococcus agalactiae, are gram-positive bacteria that normally colonize the gastrointestinal tract, perineum, and vagina.[68]​ They can cause invasive infections at any age but infections are most common in the neonatal period, in older people, and in adults with predisposing factors (i.e., pregnancy, diabetes mellitus, immunocompromised).[68]​ Approximately 10% to 30% of pregnant women are colonized with GBS in the rectum or vagina; in the absence of intervention, around 1% to 2% of babies born to colonized mothers will develop early-onset GBS infection.[69]​ GBS can produce a wide range of manifestations in pregnant women, including UTI, chorioamnionitis, sepsis, postpartum endometritis, and postpartum wound infection.
• Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy

  Summary

  Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is a disorder characterized by maternal pruritus (itch) and liver dysfunction, in the absence of other contributing liver disorders and restricted to pregnancy. Risk factors include previous or family history of ICP, cholelithiasis, and history of hepatitis C.[70] [71] [72] [73] The condition likely occurs because of the interplay of reproductive hormones with environmental factors in genetically susceptible individuals. Maternal complications include an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and preeclampsia, in addition to impaired glucose tolerance and dyslipidemia; fetal complications include preterm birth, meconium-staining of the amniotic fluid, neonatal unit admission, and, in pregnant women with bile acid concentrations of ≥100 micromol/L, intrauterine fetal death (stillbirth).[74]
• Preeclampsia

  Summary

  A disorder of pregnancy associated with new-onset hypertension (defined as a systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg), which occurs most often after 20 weeks of gestation and frequently near term. Although often accompanied by new-onset proteinuria, hypertension and other signs or symptoms of preeclampsia may present in some women in the absence of proteinuria.[75] While the exact incidence is unknown, preeclampsia has been reported to occur in about 4% of all pregnancies in the US.[76]​ When figures include women who develop preeclampsia postpartum, the incidence is between 2% and 8% of all pregnancies worldwide.[77]​ The woman may be asymptomatic and diagnosed at a routine clinic visit, or she may present acutely with headache, upper abdominal pain, visual disturbances, breathlessness, seizures, and oliguria.
• HELLP syndrome

  Summary

  A severe form of preeclampsia characterized by hemolysis (H), elevated liver enzymes (EL), and low platelets (LP) in a pregnant or puerperal woman (usually within 7 days of delivery). HELLP syndrome occurs in approximately 1 to 8 per 1000 pregnancies.[78]​ The diagnosis of HELLP syndrome should be considered in any pregnant woman presenting in the second half of gestation or immediately postpartum with significant new-onset epigastric/right upper quadrant pain until proven otherwise. Associated with progressive and sometimes rapid maternal and fetal deterioration.
• Placental abruption

  Summary

  Premature separation of the normally located placenta before delivery of the fetus.[79]​ May be concealed or overt.[79] Associated with increased perinatal mortality and morbidity. Also a cause of significant maternal morbidity. Placental abruption complicates about 0.3% to 1% of births.[80] [81]​​​ Placental abruption may result from direct abdominal trauma, indirect trauma, or cocaine use. Risk factors include smoking, trauma, hypertensive disorders, and cocaine use.
• Preterm labor

  Summary

  Preterm birth occurs between 24 and 37 weeks' gestation. In two-thirds of cases, it occurs following spontaneous onset of labor. Only 1% of all births occur below 32 weeks' gestation. Mortality and serious morbidity are uncommon above 32 weeks' gestation, although more subtle long-term effects, such as behavioral problems during childhood, still occur with later gestations. Premature labor has a multifactorial etiology, and it is now viewed as a syndrome. Its causal factors can be generally categorized into maternal or fetal. Only a minority of women who present with preterm contractions known as threatened preterm labor progress to actual labor and delivery. The remainder of preterm birth is due to iatrogenic delivery, most commonly because of preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction.
• Breech presentation

  Summary

  Breech presentation in pregnancy occurs when a baby presents with the buttocks or feet rather than the head first (cephalic presentation) and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality for both the mother and the baby.[82] [83]​​​ It is common in early pregnancy and decreases with advancing gestational age, as most babies turn spontaneously to a cephalic presentation before birth.[84] [85]​ Factors that predispose pregnancies to breech presentation include preterm delivery, small for gestational age fetus, primiparity, congenital anomalies in the fetus, abnormal amniotic fluid volume, placental and uterine anomalies, and previous breech delivery.[86] [87] [88] [89] [90]
• Rh incompatibility

  Summary

  Rhesus (Rh) incompatibility is a condition where a Rh-negative mother carrying a Rh-positive fetus can produce antibodies against paternally-derived Rh antigens on fetal red blood cells. These antibodies can cross the placenta, and destroy fetal red blood cells. The estimated global prevalence of Rh hemolytic disease is 276/100,000 live births; in countries with well-established perinatal-neonatal care, the prevalence is approximately 2.5/100,000 live births.[91]​ It is a leading cause of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn, also known as erythroblastosis fetalis, which involves progressive fetal anemia and, if untreated, may ultimately lead to hydrops fetalis and death.[92] [93]
• Premature newborn care

  Summary

  An infant born before 37 completed weeks of gestation. In addition to immediate postbirth resuscitation, efforts to reduce excessive oxygen exposure, hyperventilation, hypothermia, and hypoglycemia must be made. Prematurity is common, accounting for 10.6% of live births globally.[94]​ Consultation with a neonatologist as soon as possible is recommended to reduce potential morbidity.
• Postpartum depression

  Summary

  The development of a depressive illness following childbirth may form part of a bipolar or, more usually, a unipolar illness.[95] Postpartum depression is not recognized by current classification systems as a condition in its own right, but the onset of a depressive episode within 4 weeks of childbirth can be recorded via the peripartum-onset specifier in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition, text revision (DSM-5-TR).[96] There is evidence to suggest that the DSM-5-TR specifier is too narrow.[97] Hence, in common usage, depressive episodes occurring within 6 to 12 months of delivery may be considered to be postpartum depression. Studies report a wide range in the prevalence of postpartum depression worldwide, ranging from 0% to 60%.[98]​ Strong risk factors include history of depression or anxiety, recent stressful life events, violence and abuse, poor social support, preterm and low birth weight infants, and discontinuing psychopharmacologic treatments.[99] [100]